A Pilot Study on the Impact of Menstrual Cycle Phase on Elite Australian Football Athletes
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Subjects
2.2. Menstrual Cycle Phase Identification
2.3. Outcome Measures
2.3.1. Countermovement Jump
2.3.2. Adductor Squeeze
2.3.3. Wellness Questionnaire
2.3.4. Perceived Exertion
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Menstruation | Non-Menstruation | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Outcome | n | Mean ± SD | n | Mean ± SD | P |
AS 0° (mmHg) | 3 | 160 ± 20 | 33 | 202.73 ± 47.72 | 0.99 |
AS 60° (mmHg) | 3 | 193.33 ± 80.83 | 33 | 232.42 ± 49.06 | 0.62 |
Fatigue | 7 | 3.43 ± 0.79 | 38 | 3.53 ± 76 | 0.64 |
Sleep | 7 | 2.57 ± 1.13 | 38 | 3.32 ± 1.07 | 0.07 |
Soreness | 7 | 2.29 ± 0.49 | 38 | 2.84 ± 0.82 | 0.08 |
Stress | 7 | 3.29 ± 0.49 | 38 | 3.24 ± 0.43 | 0.71 |
RPE | 9 | 3.44 ± 1.33 | 46 | 3.35 ± 1.43 | 0.81 |
References
- Cleary, M. Females Lead Big Rise in Football Participation Rate. Available online: https://www.afl.com.au/news/100303/females-lead-big-rise-in-football-participation-rate (accessed on 11 August 2021).
- Australian Football League. AFL Reaffirms Commitment to AFLW, 2021 Season Model Unveiled. Available online: https://www.afl.com.au/news/456751/statement-afl-reaffirms-commitment-to-aflw-2021-season-model-unveiled (accessed on 28 August 2020).
- Varley, M.C.; Gabbett, T.; Aughey, R.J. Activity profiles of professional soccer, rugby league and Australian football match play. J. Sports Sci. 2014, 32, 1858–1866. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thornton, H.R.; Armstrong, C.R.; Gamble, T.; Rigby, A.; Johnston, R.D.; Duthie, G.M. Quantifying the Movement Characteristics of Australian Football League Women’s Competition. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Armour, M.; Parry, K.A.; Steel, K.; Smith, C.A. Australian female athlete perceptions of the challenges associated with training and competing when menstrual symptoms are present. Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Solli, G.S.; Sandbakk, S.B.; Noordhof, D.A.; Ihalainen, J.K.; Sandbakk, O. Changes in Self-Reported Physical Fitness, Performance, and Side Effects Across the Phases of the Menstrual Cycle Among Competitive Endurance Athletes. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Findlay, R.J.; Macrae, E.H.R.; Whyte, I.Y.; Easton, C.; Forrest, L.J. How the menstrual cycle and menstruation affect sporting performance: Experiences and perceptions of elite female rugby players. Br. J. Sports Med. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bruinvels, G.; Goldsmith, E.; Blagrove, R.; Simpkin, A.; Lewis, N.; Morton, K.; Suppiah, A.; Rogers, J.P.; Ackerman, K.E.; Newell, J.; et al. Prevalence and Frequency of Menstrual Cycle Symptoms Are Associated With Availability to Train and Compete: A Study of 6812 Exercising Women Recruited Using The Strava Exercise App. Br. J. Sports Med. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brown, N.; Knight, C.; Forrest, L. Elite female athletes’ experiences and perceptions of the menstrual cycle on training and sport performance. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports 2020, 31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hooper, A.E.; Bryan, A.D.; Eaton, M. Menstrual cycle effects on perceived exertion and pain during exercise among sedentary women. J. Womens Health (Larchmt) 2011, 20, 439–446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
- Freemas, J.; Baranauskas, M.; Constantini, K.; Constantini, N.; Mickleborough, T.; Raglin, J.; Schlader, Z. Aerobic Exercise Performance is Reduced in the Mid-luteal Compared to the Mid-follicular Phase of the Menstrual Cycle in Eumenorrheic Women. FASEB J. 2020, 34, 1–1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Harrison, K. Effect of Menstrual Cycle on Perceived Exertion and Running Economy During Treadmill Running. Master’s Thesis, The State University of New York, New York, NY, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Romero-Parra, N.; Cupeiro, R.; Alfaro-Magallanes, V.M.; Rael, B.; Rubio-Arias, J.; Peinado, A.B.; Benito, P.J. Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage During the Menstrual Cycle: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2021, 35, 549–561. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saw, A.E.; Main, L.C.; Gastin, P.B. Monitoring the athlete training response: Subjective self-reported measures trump commonly used objective measures: A systematic review. Br. J. Sports Med. 2016, 50, 281–291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carmichael, M.A.; Thomson, R.L.; Moran, L.J.; Wycherley, T.P. The Impact of Menstrual Cycle Phase on Athletes’ Performance: A Narrative Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 1667. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McNulty, K.L.; Elliott-Sale, K.J.; Dolan, E.; Swinton, P.A.; Ansdell, P.; Goodall, S.; Thomas, K.; Hicks, K.M. The Effects of Menstrual Cycle Phase on Exercise Performance in Eumenorrheic Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Med. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Julian, R.; Hecksteden, A.; Fullagar, H.H.; Meyer, T. The effects of menstrual cycle phase on physical performance in female soccer players. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0173951. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Campa, F.; Levi Micheli, M.; Pompignoli, M.; Cannataro, R.; Gulisano, M.; Toselli, S.; Greco, G.; Coratella, G. The Influence of Menstrual Cycle on Bioimpedance Vector Patterns, Performance, and Flexibility in Elite Soccer Players. Int. J. Sports Physiol Perform. 2021, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Najmabadi, S.; Schliep, K.C.; Simonsen, S.E.; Porucznik, C.A.; Egger, M.J.; Stanford, J.B. Menstrual bleeding, cycle length, and follicular and luteal phase lengths in women without known subfertility: A pooled analysis of three cohorts. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2020, 34, 318–327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bull, J.R.; Rowland, S.P.; Scherwitzl, E.B.; Scherwitzl, R.; Danielsson, K.G.; Harper, J. Real-world Menstrual Cycle Characteristics of More Than 600,000 Menstrual Cycles. NPJ Digit. Med. 2019, 2, 83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
- Blackwell, L.F.; Brown, J.B.; Vigil, P.; Gross, B.; Sufi, S.; d’Arcangues, C. Hormonal monitoring of ovarian activity using the Ovarian Monitor, part I. Validation of home and laboratory results obtained during ovulatory cycles by comparison with radioimmunoassay. Steroids 2003, 68, 465–476. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nicolli, A.; Chiara, F.; Gambalunga, A.; Carrieri, M.; Bartolucci, G.B.; Trevisan, A. Reliability of Urinary Excretion Rate Adjustment in Measurements of Hippuric Acid in Urine. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2014, 11, 7036–7044. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- McLean, B.; Coutts, A.; Kelly, V.; McGuigan, M.; Cormack, S. Neuromuscular, Endocrine, and Perceptual Fatigue Responses During Different Length Between-Match Microcycles in Professional Rugby League Players. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2010, 5, 367–383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Foster, C.; Florhaug, J.; Franklin, J.; Gottschall, L.; Hrovatin, L.; Parker, S.; Doleshal, P.; Dodge, C. A New Approach to Monitoring Exercise Training. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2001, 15, 109–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Turner, A.; Bishop, C.; Springham, M.; Stewart, P. Identifying readiness to train: When to push and when to pull. Prof. Strength Cond. J. 2016, 42, 9–14. [Google Scholar]
- Chandrasekaran, B.; Fernandes, S.; Davis, F. Science of Sleep and Sports Performance: A Scoping Review. Sci. Sports 2020, 35, 3–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hrozanova, M.; Klöckner, C.A.; Sandbakk, Ø.; Pallesen, S.; Moen, F. Sex differences in sleep and influence of the menstrual cycle on women’s sleep in junior endurance athletes. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0253376. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Koikawa, N.; Takami, Y.; Kawasaki, Y.; Kawana, F.; Shiroshita, N.; Ogasawara, E.; Kasai, T. Changes in the objective measures of sleep between the initial nights of menses and the nights during the mid-follicular phase of the menstrual cycle in collegiate female athletes. J. Clin. Sleep Med. 2020, 16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Romans, S.E.; Kreindler, D.; Einstein, G.; Laredo, S.; Petrovic, M.J.; Stanley, J. Sleep Quality and the Menstrual Cycle. Sleep Med. 2015, 16, 489–495. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Driver, H.S.; Werth, E.; Dijk, D.-J.; Borbély, A.A. The Menstrual Cycle Effects on Sleep. Sleep Med. Clin. 2008, 3, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, M.J.; Adams, L.F.; Schmidt, P.J.; Rubinow, D.R.; Wassermann, E.M. Effects of ovarian hormones on human cortical excitability. Ann. Neurol 2002, 51, 599–603. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Phillips, S.K.; Sanderson, A.G.; Birch, K.; Bruce, S.A.; Woledge, R.C. Changes in Maximal Voluntary Force of Human Adductor Pollicis Muscle During The Menstrual Cycle. J. Physiol. 1996, 496, 551–557. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Gordon, D.; Hughes, F.; Young, K.; Scruton, A.; Keiller, D.; Caddy, O.; Baker, J.; Barnes, R. The Effects of Menstrual Cycle Phase on The Development of Peak Torque under Isokinetic Conditions. Isokinet. Exerc. Sci. 2013, 21, 285–291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pallavi, L.C.; Souza, U.J.D.; Shivaprakash, G. Assessment of Musculoskeletal Strength and Levels of Fatigue during Different Phases of Menstrual Cycle in Young Adults. J. Clin. Diagn. Res. 2017, 11, CC11–CC13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Thompson, B.; Sculley, D.; Hands, D.; Jonge, X.J.D. The acute effect of the menstrual cycle and oral contraceptive cycle on responses to a resistance training session. J. Sci. Med. Sport 2019, 22, S31–S32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wearing, M.P. The effect of the menstrual cycle on tests of physical fitness. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fit. 1972, 12, 38–41. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Tasmektepligil, M.Y.; Agaoglu, S.A.; Türkmen, L.; Türkmen, M. The motor performance and some physical characteristics of the sportswomen and sedentary lifestyle women during menstrual cycle. Arch. Budo 2010, 6, 195–203. [Google Scholar]
- Scambler, A.; Scambler, G. Menstrual symptoms, attitudes and consulting behaviour. Soc. Sci. Med. 1985, 20, 1065–1068. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, S.H.; Lloyd, A.R.; Graham, B.M. Physical and mental fatigue across the menstrual cycle in women with and without generalised anxiety disorder. Horm. Behav. 2020, 118, 104667. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kocaoz, S.; Cirpan, R.; Degirmencioglu, A.Z. The prevalence and impacts heavy menstrual bleeding on anemia, fatigue and quality of life in women of reproductive age. Pak. J. Med. Sci. 2019, 35, 365–370. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
- Kikuchi, H.; Nakatani, Y.; Seki, Y.; Yu, X.; Sekiyama, T.; Sato-Suzuki, I.; Arita, H. Decreased blood serotonin in the premenstrual phase enhances negative mood in healthy women. J. Psychosom. Obstet. Gynaecol. 2010, 31, 83–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Romero-Parra, N.; Alfaro-Magallanes, V.M.; Rael, B.; Cupeiro, R.; Rojo-Tirado, M.A.; Benito, P.J.; Peinado, A.B. Indirect Markers of Muscle Damage Throughout the Menstrual Cycle. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2020, 13, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chaffin, M.E.; Berg, K.E.; Meendering, J.R.; Llewellyn, T.L.; French, J.A.; Davis, J.E. Interleukin-6 and Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness Do Not Vary During the Menstrual Cycle. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 2011, 82, 693–701. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mattu, A.T.; Iannetta, D.; MacInnis, M.J.; Doyle-Baker, P.K.; Murias, J.M. Menstrual and oral contraceptive cycle phases do not affect submaximal and maximal exercise responses. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports 2020, 30, 472–484. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nagai, M.; Chiba, H.; Haga, M.; Sasaki, K.; Maruyama, R. Effect of menstrual cycle on exercise performance and cardiovascular responses in female long-distance runners. FASEB J. 2010, 24, 804–817. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Elliott-Sale, K.J.; Minahan, C.L.; de Jonge, X.A.K.J.; Ackerman, K.E.; Sipilä, S.; Constantini, N.W.; Lebrun, C.M.; Hackney, A.C. Methodological Considerations for Studies in Sport and Exercise Science with Women as Participants: A Working Guide for Standards of Practice for Research on Women. Sports Med. 2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Roberts, S.S.H.; Falkenberg, E.; Stevens, A.; Aisbett, B.; Lastella, M.; Condo, D. The Sleep of Elite Australian Rules Footballers During Preseason: A Comparison of Men and Women. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2021, 4, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Montesano, J. AFLW Players and Professionalisation. Available online: https://www.upstart.net.au/how-the-full-professionalisation-of-aflw-would-affect-players/ (accessed on 3 March 2021).
- Elliott-Sale, K.J.; Ross, E.; Burden, R.; Hicks, K. The BASES Expert Statement on Conducting and Implementing Female Athlete-Based Research. Sport Exerc. Sci. 2020, 65, 6–7. [Google Scholar]
Follicular | Luteal | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Outcome | n | Mean ± SD | n | Mean ± SD | P |
AS 0° (mmHg) | 15 | 196 ± 48.1 | 21 | 201.4 ± 48 | 0.362 |
AS 60° (mmHg) | 15 | 228 ± 58.8 | 21 | 230 ± 47.9 | 0.816 |
CMJ FT: CT | 4 | 0.53 ± 0.09 | 7 | 0.48 ± 0.04 | 0.173 |
CMJ PP (W) | 4 | 2850.7 ± 280.2 | 7 | 2812 ± 135.2 | 0.510 |
CMJ RPP (W/kg) | 4 | 43.2 ± 8.3 | 7 | 42 ± 4.8 | 0.264 |
Fatigue * | 17 | 3.24 ± 0.56 | 28 | 3.68 ± 0.82 | 0.042 |
Sleep * | 17 | 2.65 ± 0.86 | 28 | 3.54 ± 1.11 | 0.005 |
Soreness | 17 | 2.65 ± 0.79 | 28 | 2.82 ± 0.82 | 0.262 |
Stress | 17 | 3.12 ± 0.33 | 28 | 3.32 ± 0.48 | 0.224 |
RPE | 25 | 3.36 ± 1.29 | 30 | 3.37 ± 1.52 | 0.670 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Carmichael, M.A.; Thomson, R.L.; Moran, L.J.; Dunstan, J.R.; Nelson, M.J.; Mathai, M.L.; Wycherley, T.P. A Pilot Study on the Impact of Menstrual Cycle Phase on Elite Australian Football Athletes. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 9591. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189591
Carmichael MA, Thomson RL, Moran LJ, Dunstan JR, Nelson MJ, Mathai ML, Wycherley TP. A Pilot Study on the Impact of Menstrual Cycle Phase on Elite Australian Football Athletes. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(18):9591. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189591
Chicago/Turabian StyleCarmichael, Mikaeli A., Rebecca L. Thomson, Lisa J. Moran, Joel R. Dunstan, Maximillian J. Nelson, Michael L. Mathai, and Thomas P. Wycherley. 2021. "A Pilot Study on the Impact of Menstrual Cycle Phase on Elite Australian Football Athletes" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 18: 9591. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189591