ECG Ventricular Repolarization Dynamics during Exercise: Temporal Profile, Relation to Heart Rate Variability and Effects of Age and Physical Health
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Procedure
2.3. Data Recording
2.4. Data Analysis and Processing
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. LF Oscillations of dT in Response to Exercise and Relation to HRV
3.2. Effects of Age, BMI and Cardiorespiratory Fitness Level on LF Oscillations of dT
3.3. Identification of Individuals with Elevated LF Oscillations of dT
4. Discussion
4.1. dT Mainly Oscillates in the LF Band, Being Not Completely Unrelated to HRV
4.2. Incremental Exercise Enhances LF Oscillations of dT, with the Temporal Oscillatory Profile Being Highly Inter-Individual
4.3. LF Oscillations of dT Are Significantly Elevated in a Group of Overweight and Unfit Individuals
4.4. Strengths, Limitations and Future Research
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Outcome | Young Adults (n = 24) | Middle-Aged Adults (n = 21) | Older Adults (n = 21) | Main Effect | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
p | Effect Size | |||||
SREST | PRRV (e−4) | 23.17 (15.06 to 43.17) O | 11.96 (7.90 to 23.84) O | 3.65 (1.86 to 10.82) Y,M | <0.001 * | 0.333 |
PdTV | 1.31 (0.64 to 2.55) | 1.33 (0.71 to 4.95) | 0.92 (0.48 to 2.76) | 0.666 | 0.012 | |
PdTVuRRV | 0.80 (0.39 to 1.24) | 0.64 (0.41 to 2.75) | 0.61 (0.26 to 1.41) | 0.712 | 0.010 | |
PdTVrRRV | 0.54 (0.24 to 1.15) | 0.69 (0.31 to 2.20) | 0.43 (0.21 to 1.09) | 0.480 | 0.023 | |
PdTVuRRVn | 0.61 (0.59 to 0.66) | 0.67 (0.59 to 0.77) | 0.62 (0.56 to 0.76) | 0.393 | 0.029 | |
SCY60 | PRRV (e−4) | 2.43 (1.15 to 3.52) O | 1.24 (0.89 to 2.12) | 1.13 (0.71 to 1.95) Y | 0.013 * | 0.133 |
PdTV | 63.30 (25.45 to 97.67) | 141.55 (40.01 to 192.05) | 99.11 (26.17 to 125.91) | 0.307 | 0.036 | |
PdTVuRRV | 32.34 (12.18 to 47.36) | 72.16 (16.47 to 97.98) | 48.60 (12.91 to 71.78) | 0.340 | 0.033 | |
PdTVrRRV | 30.55 (13.27 to 55.29) | 67.71 (19.33 to 104.23) | 42.66 (8.72 to 56.85) | 0.301 | 0.037 | |
PdTVuRRVn | 0.54 (0.50 to 0.57) | 0.53 (0.50 to 0.55) | 0.55 (0.51 to 0.58) | 0.471 | 0.023 | |
SCY70 | PRRV (e−4) | 0.94 (0.45 to 1.67) | 0.75 (0.33 to 1.03) | 0.44 (0.24 to 0.91) | 0.164 | 0.056 |
PdTV | 103.00 (57.80 to 222.93) | 87.38 (66.51 to 172.59) | 88.19 (49.36 to 213.62) | 0.929 | 0.002 | |
PdTVuRRV | 60.75 (29.50 to 122.93) | 56.59 (33.15 to 95.72) | 48.87 (26.85 to 117.75) | 0.953 | 0.001 | |
PdTVrRRV | 43.61 (27.82 to 105.93) | 48.79 (24.36 to 76.87) | 44.75 (15.30 to 93.96) | 0.886 | 0.004 | |
PdTVuRRVn | 0.56 (0.54 to 0.60) | 0.55 (0.54 to 0.57) | 0.55 (0.52 to 0.60) | 0.555 | 0.018 | |
SCY80 | PRRV (e−4) | 0.32 (0.15 to 0.48) | 0.19 (0.12 to 0.36) | 0.20 (0.14 to 0.38) | 0.345 | 0.033 |
PdTV | 151.85 (41.39 to 221.44) | 96.18 (46.42 to 143.97) | 79.23 (53.30 to 169.55) | 0.789 | 0.007 | |
PdTVuRRV | 85.69 (21.61 to 150.95) | 58.99 (28.59 to 117.91) | 53.67 (31.37 to 116.53) | 0.898 | 0.003 | |
PdTVrRRV | 53.54 (20.21 to 89.76) | 31.17 (16.32 to 49.83) | 31.73 (21.17 to 62.73) | 0.506 | 0.021 | |
PdTVuRRVn | 0.62 (0.58 to 0.69) | 0.64 (0.61 to 0.70) | 0.60 (0.56 to 0.68) | 0.255 | 0.042 | |
SREC | PRRV (e−4) | 7.09 (3.45 to 16.39) | 10.71 (5.34 to 17.35) O | 5.16 (2.28 to 9.47) M | 0.014 * | 0.130 |
PdTV | 2.46 (1.42 to 6.59) | 2.83 (1.36 to 4.20) | 4.92 (2.86 to 7.52) | 0.086 | 0.075 | |
PdTVuRRV | 1.25 (0.75 to 4.09) | 1.30 (0.86 to 2.32) | 2.66 (1.40 to 3.98) | 0.067 | 0.083 | |
PdTVrRRV | 1.27 (0.60 to 2.75) | 1.43 (0.49 to 2.21) | 2.23 (0.93 to 3.67) | 0.257 | 0.042 | |
PdTVuRRVn | 0.57 (0.54 to 0.64) | 0.58 (0.50 to 0.62) | 0.61 (0.54 to 0.64) | 0.613 | 0.015 |
Outcome | Non-Overweight (n = 38) | Overweight (n = 28) | p | ES | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
SREST | PRRV (e−4) | 16.93 (6.18 to 30.57) | 10.09 (3.91 to 19.57) | 0.143 | 0.180 |
PdTV | 1.10 (0.44 to 2.07) | 1.60 (0.84 to 3.37) | 0.030 * | 0.267 | |
PdTVuRRV | 0.57 (0.27 to 1.24) | 0.75 (0.51 to 2.05) | 0.078 | 0.217 | |
PdTVrRRV | 0.46 (0.21 to 0.80) | 0.75 (0.38 to 1.47) | 0.019 * | 0.289 | |
PdTVuRRVn | 0.63 (0.60 to 0.71) | 0.60 (0.56 to 0.73) | 0.364 | 0.112 | |
SCY60 | PRRV (e−4) | 1.74 (1.01 to 2.95) | 1.44 (0.73 to 2.33) | 0.173 | 0.168 |
PdTV | 69.61 (27.79 to 165.01) | 98.71 (23.81 to 176.69) | 0.716 | 0.045 | |
PdTVuRRV | 33.32 (12.88 to 74.32) | 47.73 (12.13 to 90.98) | 0.736 | 0.042 | |
PdTVrRRV | 37.01 (14.92 to 78.70) | 43.54 (8.67 to 89.04) | 0.815 | 0.029 | |
PdTVuRRVn | 0.55 (0.53 to 0.58) | 0.51 (0.50 to 0.55) | 0.002 * | 0.388 | |
SCY70 | PRRV (e−4) | 0.72 (0.33 to 1.13) | 0.54 (0.30 to 1.26) | 0.645 | 0.057 |
PdTV | 99.71 (56.84 to 218.33) | 87.78 (68.89 to 177.39) | 0.887 | 0.018 | |
PdTVuRRV | 53.14 (30.30 to 116.59) | 56.33 (30.53 to 102.87) | 0.979 | 0.003 | |
PdTVrRRV | 43.61 (26.17 to 94.15) | 46.17 (15.76 to 74.53) | 0.640 | 0.057 | |
PdTVuRRVn | 0.56 (0.54 to 0.60) | 0.55 (0.51 to 0.59) | 0.208 | 0.155 | |
SCY80 | PRRV (e−4) | 0.29 (0.14 to 0.41) | 0.19 (0.13 to 0.46) | 0.559 | 0.072 |
PdTV | 116.95 (51.73 to 235.29) | 83.25 (51.81 to 150.11) | 0.392 | 0.105 | |
PdTVuRRV | 74.30 (31.29 to 148.63) | 51.23 (25.08 to 114.92) | 0.429 | 0.097 | |
PdTVrRRV | 43.68 (19.03 to 93.20) | 31.00 (19.81 to 55.13) | 0.270 | 0.136 | |
PdTVuRRVn | 0.64 (0.60 to 0.69) | 0.61 (0.57 to 0.68) | 0.254 | 0.141 | |
SREC | PRRV (e−4) | 9.47 (6.05 to 18.15) | 4.06 (2.17 to 8.44) | <0.001 * | 0.436 |
PdTV | 2.76 (1.47 to 5.99) | 3.62 (1.68 to 6.60) | 0.517 | 0.080 | |
PdTVuRRV | 1.27 (0.85 to 3.22) | 2.16 (1.28 to 3.82) | 0.259 | 0.139 | |
PdTVrRRV | 1.49 (0.64 to 2.82) | 1.59 (0.45 to 3.43) | 0.825 | 0.027 | |
PdTVuRRVn | 0.58 (0.53 to 0.64) | 0.58 (0.53 to 0.63) | 0.959 | 0.006 |
Outcome | Fit (n = 32) | Unfit (n = 34) | p | ES | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
SREST | PRRV (e−4) | 12.45 (5.61 to 24.60) | 14.25 (6.12 to 28.66) | 0.581 | 0.068 |
PdTV | 1.10 (0.43 to 2.22) | 1.43 (0.80 to 2.70) | 0.166 | 0.171 | |
PdTVuRRV | 0.63 (0.27 to 1.38) | 0.71 (0.43 to 1.24) | 0.419 | 0.099 | |
PdTVrRRV | 0.45 (0.23 to 0.80) | 0.71 (0.33 to 1.44) | 0.061 | 0.231 | |
PdTVuRRVn | 0.65 (0.60 to 0.73) | 0.61 (0.55 to 0.67) | 0.059 | 0.232 | |
SCY60 | PRRV (e−4) | 1.23 (0.96 to 2.51) | 1.82 (0.96 to 2.91) | 0.441 | 0.095 |
PdTV | 74.15 (19.97 to 175.41) | 92.39 (36.08 to 165.01) | 0.635 | 0.058 | |
PdTVuRRV | 35.28 (10.57 to 91.96) | 44.43 (15.99 to 81.78) | 0.663 | 0.054 | |
PdTVrRRV | 36.43 (10.35 to 90.40) | 48.12 (14.57 to 73.71) | 0.599 | 0.065 | |
PdTVuRRVn | 0.55 (0.52 to 0.57) | 0.53 (0.50 to 0.55) | 0.121 | 0.191 | |
SCY70 | PRRV (e−4) | 0.54 (0.32 to 1.03) | 0.76 (0.35 to 1.32) | 0.223 | 0.150 |
PdTV | 85.90 (42.46 to 208.57) | 101.57 (70.22 to 175.55) | 0.496 | 0.084 | |
PdTVuRRV | 49.52 (21.85 to 121.80) | 59.95 (34.25 to 91.91) | 0.663 | 0.054 | |
PdTVrRRV | 38.97 (16.83 to 86.07) | 46.17 (31.58 to 78.83) | 0.488 | 0.085 | |
PdTVuRRVn | 0.56 (0.54 to 0.60) | 0.55 (0.52 to 0.57) | 0.166 | 0.171 | |
SCY80 | PRRV (e−4) | 0.21 (0.13 to 0.35) | 0.26 (0.14 to 0.53) | 0.133 | 0.185 |
PdTV | 130.30 (59.72 to 291.39) | 83.25 (50.12 to 152.08) | 0.281 | 0.133 | |
PdTVuRRV | 82.98 (37.23 to 156.10) | 49.39 (23.61 to 92.27) | 0.178 | 0.166 | |
PdTVrRRV | 42.06 (16.91 to 108.72) | 31.45 (21.28 to 57.86) | 0.635 | 0.058 | |
PdTVuRRVn | 0.67 (0.61 to 0.70) | 0.61 (0.58 to 0.64) | 0.016 * | 0.295 | |
SREC | PRRV (e−4) | 8.39 (5.23 to 17.51) | 5.22 (2.89 to 13.56) | 0.063 | 0.229 |
PdTV | 3.55 (1.93 to 6.02) | 2.86 (1.47 to 6.83) | 0.710 | 0.046 | |
PdTVuRRV | 2.03 (0.94 to 3.08) | 1.36 (0.89 to 3.85) | 0.672 | 0.052 | |
PdTVrRRV | 1.81 (0.86 to 2.81) | 1.44 (0.53 to 3.78) | 0.691 | 0.049 | |
PdTVuRRVn | 0.60 (0.54 to 0.65) | 0.57 (0.53 to 0.62) | 0.178 | 0.166 |
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Outcome | Young Adults (n = 24) | Middle-Aged Adults (n = 21) | Older Adults (n = 21) |
---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | 25.41 ± 2.74 | 42.86 ± 3.06 | 63.82 ± 2.97 |
Height (m) | 1.75 ± 0.06 | 1.77 ± 0.06 | 1.71 ± 0.05 |
Weight (kg) | 71.81 ± 11.45 | 78.44 ± 10.49 | 76.53 ± 7.96 |
BMI (kg·m−2) | 23.30 ± 2.86 | 25.09 ± 2.88 | 26.17 ± 2.82 |
“Overweight” (%) | 20.8 (5) | 47.6 (10) | 61.9 (13) |
PWC80% (W·kg−1) | 2.01 ± 0.61 | 2.02 ± 0.59 | 1.74 ± 0.59 |
“Unfit” (%) | 50.0 (12) | 52.4 (11) | 52.4 (11) |
Outcome | CLUSTER A (n = 31) | CLUSTER B (n = 35) | p | Effect Size |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | 32.99 ± 11.48 | 52.22 ± 14.38 | <0.001 * | 0.580 |
Height (m) | 175.37 ± 6.07 | 173.51 ± 6.20 | 0.203 | 0.157 |
Weight (kg) | 69.36 ± 8.88 | 80.79 ± 8.57 | <0.001 * | 0.506 |
BMI (kg·m−2) | 22.48 ± 1.87 | 26.82 ± 2.38 | <0.001 * | 0.757 |
% of “overweight” | 6.5 (2) | 74.3 (26) | ||
PWC80% (W·kg−1) | 2.33 ± 0.59 | 1.57 ± 0.33 | <0.001 * | 0.628 |
% of “unfit” | 32.3 (10) | 68.6 (24) |
Outcome | CLUSTER A (n = 31) | CLUSTER B (n = 35) | p | ES | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
SREST | PRRV (e−4) | 18.14 (6.31 to 38.94) | 9.79 (3.65 to 17.54) | 0.020 * | 0.287 |
PdTV | 1.00 (0.41 to 1.87) | 1.50 (0.82 to 2.96) | 0.021 * | 0.284 | |
PdTVuRRV | 0.51 (0.22 to 1.23) | 0.75 (0.49 to 1.56) | 0.039 * | 0.254 | |
PdTVrRRV | 0.39 (0.23 to 0.79) | 0.75 (0.37 to 1.43) | 0.018 * | 0.290 | |
PdTVuRRVn | 0.62 (0.60 to 0.70) | 0.62 (0.56 to 0.73) | 0.743 | 0.040 | |
SCY60 | PRRV (e−4) | 1.40 (0.98 to 3.41) | 1.64 (0.89 to 2.39) | 0.400 | 0.104 |
PdTV | 63.42 (24.28 to 162.91) | 99.78 (33.81 to 186.33) | 0.289 | 0.130 | |
PdTVuRRV | 32.34 (11.83 to 72.16) | 53.95 (15.66 to 93.05) | 0.295 | 0.129 | |
PdTVrRRV | 30.84 (12.45 to 74.75) | 48.50 (11.08 to 93.27) | 0.415 | 0.100 | |
PdTVuRRVn | 0.55 (0.52 to 0.58) | 0.53 (0.50 to 0.56) | 0.141 | 0.181 | |
SCY70 | PRRV (e−4) | 0.66 (0.32 to 1.21) | 0.60 (0.33 to 1.15) | 0.974 | 0.004 |
PdTV | 98.08 (54.45 to 186.19) | 88.19 (69.84 to 243.71) | 0.724 | 0.043 | |
PdTVuRRV | 56.59 (29.10 to 106.70) | 49.70 (30.67 to 126.59) | 0.733 | 0.042 | |
PdTVrRRV | 42.96 (21.45 to 79.49) | 47.58 (22.86 to 83.74) | 0.832 | 0.026 | |
PdTVuRRVn | 0.56 (0.54 to 0.60) | 0.55 (0.52 to 0.60) | 0.272 | 0.135 | |
SCY80 | PRRV (e−4) | 0.24 (0.12 to 0.40) | 0.22 (0.14 to 0.43) | 0.729 | 0.043 |
PdTV | 136.21 (53.69 to 223.58) | 79.23 (51.54 to 150.67) | 0.352 | 0.115 | |
PdTVuRRV | 83.28 (33.82 to 152.10) | 48.80 (23.36 to 117.25) | 0.372 | 0.110 | |
PdTVrRRV | 47.41 (19.87 to 91.11) | 30.82 (17.09 to 59.68) | 0.256 | 0.140 | |
PdTVuRRVn | 0.64 (0.61 to 0.70) | 0.60 (0.57 to 0.67) | 0.052 | 0.240 | |
SREC | PRRV (e−4) | 9.03 (5.18 to 17.32) | 5.29 (2.49 to 13.55) | 0.036 * | 0.259 |
PdTV | 2.36 (1.40 to 5.70) | 3.82 (1.91 to 7.94) | 0.079 | 0.216 | |
PdTVuRRV | 1.21 (0.83 to 3.07) | 2.35 (1.26 to 4.06) | 0.060 | 0.232 | |
PdTVrRRV | 1.14 (0.58 to 2.55) | 1.90 (0.66 to 3.88) | 0.250 | 0.142 | |
PdTVuRRVn | 0.59 (0.53 to 0.64) | 0.57 (0.53 to 0.63) | 0.559 | 0.072 |
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Hernández-Vicente, A.; Hernando, D.; Vicente-Rodríguez, G.; Bailón, R.; Garatachea, N.; Pueyo, E. ECG Ventricular Repolarization Dynamics during Exercise: Temporal Profile, Relation to Heart Rate Variability and Effects of Age and Physical Health. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 9497. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189497
Hernández-Vicente A, Hernando D, Vicente-Rodríguez G, Bailón R, Garatachea N, Pueyo E. ECG Ventricular Repolarization Dynamics during Exercise: Temporal Profile, Relation to Heart Rate Variability and Effects of Age and Physical Health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(18):9497. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189497
Chicago/Turabian StyleHernández-Vicente, Adrián, David Hernando, Germán Vicente-Rodríguez, Raquel Bailón, Nuria Garatachea, and Esther Pueyo. 2021. "ECG Ventricular Repolarization Dynamics during Exercise: Temporal Profile, Relation to Heart Rate Variability and Effects of Age and Physical Health" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 18: 9497. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189497