The Short-Term Impact of Animation on the Executive Function of Children Aged 4 to 7
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Executive Function
1.2. The Impact of Television on EF
1.3. The Current Study
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Procedures
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. Animation Materials
2.3.2. Measuring EF
Inhibitory Control
Working Memory
Cognitive Flexibility
2.3.3. Parent Questionnaires
2.4. Analytic Strategy
3. Results
3.1. Preliminary Analyses
3.2. Main Analyses
4. Discussion
Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Beck, D.M.; Schaefer, C.; Pang, K.; Carlson, S.M. Executive function in preschool children: Test-retest reliability. J. Cogn. Dev. 2011, 12, 169–193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Blay, A.; Chevalifr, N. The role of goal representation in preschoolers’flexibility and inhibition. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 2011, 108, 469–483. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Best, J.R.; Miller, P.H. A developmental perspective on executive function. Child Dev. 2010, 81, 1641–1660. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Diamond, A. Executive Functions. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2013, 64, 135–168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Diamond, A.; Lee, K. How can we help children succeed in the 21st century? What the scientific evidence shows aids executive function development in children 4–12 years of age. Science 2011, 333, 959–964. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kim, S.; Nordling, J.K.; Yoon, J.E.; Boldt, L.J.; Kochanska, G. Effortful control in “hot” and “cool” tasks differentially predicts children’s behavior problems and academic performance. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 2013, 41, 43–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Moffitt, T.E.; Arseneault, L.; Belsky, D.; Dickson, N.; Hancox, R.J.; Harrington, H.; Houts, R.; Poulton, R.; Roberts, B.W.; Ross, S.; et al. A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2011, 108, 2963–2968. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Miyake, A.; Friedman, N.P.; Emerson, M.J.; Witzki, A.H.; Howerter, A.; Wager, T.D. The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “Frontal Lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cogn. Psychol. 2000, 41, 49–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Best, J.R.; Miller, P.H.; Jones, L.L. Executive functions after age 5: Changes and correlates. Dev. Rev. 2009, 29, 180–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Romine, C.B.; Reynolds, C.R. A model of the development of frontal lobe functioning: Findings from a meta-analysis. Appl. Neuropsychol. 2005, 12, 190–201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bernier, A.; Carlson, S.M.; Deschênes, M.; Matte-Gagné, C. Social factors in the development of early executive functioning: A closer look at the caregiving environment. Dev. Sci. 2012, 15, 12–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bernier, A.; Carlson, S.M.; Whipple, N. From external regulation to self-regulation: Early parenting precursors of young children’s executive functioning. Child Dev. 2010, 81, 326–339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kochanska, G.; Murray, K.T.; Harlan, E.T. Effortful control in early childhood: Continuity and change, antecedents, and implications for social development. Dev. Psychol. 2000, 36, 220–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lillard, A.S.; Peterson, J. The immediate impact of different types of television on young children’s executive function. Pediatrics 2011, 128, 644–649. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Tandon, P.S.; Zhou, C.; Lozano, P.; Christakis, D.A. Preschoolers’ total daily screen time at home and by type of child care. J. Pediatrics 2011, 158, 297–300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dong, S.; Song, Y.; Jiang, Y.; Sun, G.; Wang, Y.; Jiang, F. A multicenter study on the influence of TV watching behavior on sleep quality of children under 4 years old in China. Chin. J. Pediatrics 2015, 12, 907–912. [Google Scholar]
- Wartella, E.; Richert, R.A.; Robb, M.B. Babies, television and videos: How did we get here? Dev. Rev. 2010, 30, 116–127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rideout, V.J.; Hamel, E. The Media Family: Electronic Media in the Lives of Infants, Toddlers, Preschoolers, and Their Parents; Kaiser Family Foundation: Menlo Park, CA, USA, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Xing, S.; Jiang, Y.; Gao, X.; Ding, B.; Yang, Y. Long term effect of TV on the executive function development of preschool children: An empirical study. Educ. Res. 2017, 38, 109–119. [Google Scholar]
- Lee, E.Y.; Spence, J.C.; Carson, V. Television viewing, reading, physical activity and brain development among young South Korean children. J. Sci. Med. Sport. 2017, 20, 672–677. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nathanson, A.I.; Alade, F.; Sharp, M.L.; Rasmussen, E.E.; Christy, K. The relation between television exposure and executive function among preschoolers. Dev. Psychol. 2014, 50, 1497–1506. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nikkelen, S.W.C.; Valkenburg, P.M.; Huizinga, M.; Bushman, B.J. Media use and ADHD-related behaviors in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Dev. Psychol. 2014, 50, 2228–2241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zimmerman, F.J.; Christakis, D.A. Children’s television viewing and cognitive outcomes: A longitudinal analysis of national data. Arch. Pediatrics Adolesc. Med. 2005, 159, 619–625. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lillard, A.S.; Drell, M.B.; Richey, E.M.; Boguszewski, K.; Smith, E.D. Further examination of the immediate impact of television on children’s executive function. Dev. Psychol. 2015, 51, 792–805. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wen, Z. Causal inference and analysis in experimental research. Psychol. Sci. 2017, 40, 200–208. [Google Scholar]
- Maass, A.; Klöpper, K.M.; Michel, F.; Lohaus, A. Does media use have a short-term impact on cognitive performance? A study of television viewing and video gaming. J. Media Psychol. Theor. Methods Appl. 2011, 23, 65–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cooper, N.R.; Uller, C.; Pettifer, J.; Stolc, F.C. Conditioning attentional skills: Examining the effects of the pace of television editing on children’s attention. Acta Paediatr. 2009, 98, 1651–1655. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Geist, E.A.; Gibson, M. The effect of network and public television programs on four and five year olds ability to attend to educational tasks. Instr. Psychol. 2000, 27, 250–261. [Google Scholar]
- Lang, A. The Limited Capacity Model of Mediated Message Processing. J. Commun. 2000, 50, 46–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spelke, E. Initial knowledge: Six suggestions. Cognition 1994, 50, 431–445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carey, S. The Origin of Concepts; Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Carlson, S.M. Developmentally sensitive measures of executive function in preschool children. Dev. Neuropsychol. 2005, 28, 595–616. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Anderson, V.; Levin, H.S.; Jacobs, R. Executive functions after frontal lobe injury: A developmental perspective. In Principles of Frontal Lobe Function; Stuss, D.T., Knight, R.T., Eds.; Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA, 2002; pp. 504–527. [Google Scholar]
- Brookshire, B.; Levin, H.; Song, J.; Zhang, L. Components of executive function in typically developing and head- injured children. Dev. Neuropsychol. 2004, 25, 61–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wiebe, S.A.; Espy, K.A.; Charak, D. Using confirmatory factor analysis to understand executive control in preschool children: I. Latent structure. Dev. Psychol. 2008, 44, 575–587. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wilson, J.; Andrews, G.; Hogan, C.; Wang, S.; Shum, D.H.K.; Shum, D.H.K. Executive function in middle childhood and the relationship with theory of mind. Dev. Neuropsychol. 2018, 43, 163–182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hopkins, E.J.; Weisberg, D.S. The youngest readers’ dilemma: A review of children’s learning from fictional sources. Develop. Rev. 2016, 43, 48–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Valkenburg, P.M.; Peter, J. The differential susceptibility to media effects model. J. Commun. 2013, 63, 221–243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beyens, I.; Valkenburg, P.M.; Piotrowski, J.T. Screen media use and ADHD-related behaviors: Four decades of research. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2018, 115, 9875–9881. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gerstadt, C.L.; Hong, Y.J.; Diamond, A. The relationship between cognition and action: Performance of children 3 1/2-7 years old on a Stroop-like day-night test. Cognition 1994, 53, 129–153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jacques, S.; Zelazo, P.D. The flexible item selection task (fist): A measure of executive function in preschoolers. Dev. Neuropsychol. 2001, 20, 573–591. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Müller, U.; Kerns, K. The development of executive function. In Handbook of Child Psychology and Developmental Science, Vol. 2: Cognitive Processes; Liben, L.S., Müller, U., Lerner, R.M., Eds.; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2015; pp. 571–623. [Google Scholar]
- Thorell, L.B.; Nyberg, L. The Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory(CHEXI): A new rating instrument for parents and teachers. Dev. Neuropsychol. 2008, 33, 536–552. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Camerota, M.; Willoughby, M.T.; Kuhn, L.J.; Blair, C.B. The Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory (CHEXI): Factor structure, measurement invariance, and correlates in US preschoolers. Child Neuropsychol. 2018, 24, 322–337. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Diamond, A. Normal development of the prefrontal cortex from birth to young adulthood: Cognitive functions, anatomy and biochemistry. In Principles of Frontal Lobe Function; Stuss, D.T., Knight, R.T., Eds.; Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA, 2002; pp. 466–503. [Google Scholar]
- Wang, J.; Zhang, Y.; Zheng, C.; Lu, Y.; Qin, J. The development of executive function in children aged 3–6. Psychol. Dev. Educ. 2019, 35, 1–10. [Google Scholar]
- Xie, M. Relationship between Temperament, Inhibitory Control and Psychological Theory of 3-5-Year-Old Children. Master’s Thesis, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Brocki, K.C.; Bohlin, G. Executive Functions in Children Aged 6 to 13: A Dimensional and Developmental Study. Dev. Neuropsychol. 2004, 26, 571–593. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sun, F. A Preliminary Study of the Paradigm of Children’s Cognitive Flexibility and its Application. Master’s Thesis, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Jiang, Y.; Fu, R.; Xing, S. The effects of fantastical television content on chinese preschoolers’ executive function. Psych J. 2019, 8, 480–490. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brzezicka, A.; Kaminski, J.; Wróbel, A. Local resource depletion hypothesis as a mechanism for action selection in the brain. Behav. Brain Sci. 2013, 36, 682–683. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, S.; Lang, A. Redefining media content and structure in terms of available resources: Toward a dynamic human-centric theory of communication. Commun. Res. 2015, 42, 599–625. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Koolstra, C.M.; van Zanten, J.; Lucassen, N.; Ishaak, N. The formal pace of Sesame Street over 26 years. Percept Mot Ski. 2004, 99, 354–360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Buschman, T.J.; Miller, E.K. Top-down versus bottom-up control of attention in the prefrontal and posterior parietal cortices. Science 2007, 315, 1860–1862. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yang, X.; Chen, Z.; Wang, Z.; Zhu, L. The relations between television exposure and executive function in Chinese preschoolers: The moderated role of parental mediation behaviors. Front. Psychol. 2017, 8, 1833. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Sarter, M.; Gehring, W.J.; Kozak, R. More attention must be paid: The neurobiology of attentional effort. Brain Res. Rev. 2006, 51, 145–160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shenhav, A.; Botvinick, M.M.; Cohen, J.D. The Expected Value of Control: An Integrative Theory of Anterior Cingulate Cortex Function. Neuron 2013, 79, 217–240. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Baumeister, R.F.; Vohs, K.D.; Tice, D.M. The strength model of self-control. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 2007, 16, 351–355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Klenberg, L.; Korkman, M.; Lahti-Nuuttila, P. Differential development of attention and executive functions in 3- to 12-year-old finnish children. Dev. Neuropsychol. 2018, 20, 407–428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zou, Y.; Li, Y.; Ding, Y. FNIRS study of early higher cognitive development and prefrontal function development. Psychol. Dev. Educ. 2015, 31, 761–768. [Google Scholar]
- Brocki, K.C.; Eninger, L.; Thorell, L.B.; Bohlin, G. Interrelations between executive function and symptoms of hyperactivity/ impulsivity and inattention in preschoolers: A two year longitudinal study. J. Abnomial Child Psychol. 2010, 38, 163–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tu, M.; Yang, F. Research progress on executive function of preschool children abroad in recent ten years. Res. Presch. Educ. 2018, 9, 27–38. [Google Scholar]
Program | Length | Pacing (Scenes per Minute) | Number of Fantasy Events (Reliability %) | Fantasy Rate (Events per Minute) |
---|---|---|---|---|
SpongeBob | 9:59 | 35 | 3.00 (90%) | 30 |
Tom and Jerry | 11:10 | 8 | 3.22 (83%) | 36 |
Boonie Bear | 10:00 | 38 | 0.33 (100%) | 3 |
Big Head Son and Little Head Father | 11:13 | 7 | 0.36 (100%) | 4 |
High Fantasy | Low Fantasy | Range | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fast Paced (n = 51) | Slow Paced (n = 57) | Fast Paced (n = 56) | Slow Paced (n = 54) | ||
Gender | 0.49 ± 0.51 | 0.49 ± 0.50 | 0.52 ± 0.50 | 0.48 ±0.50 | [0.43, 0.56] |
Family income | 3.73 ± 1.02 | 3.35 ± 1.48 | 3.36 ± 1.45 | 3.46 ± 1.30 | [3.30, 3.65] |
Parental education | 3.61 ± 0.90 | 3.56 ± 0.82 | 3.66 ± 1.12 | 3.48 ±0.89 | [3.45, 3.70] |
Age of first exposure to animation (months) | 24.76 ± 13.00 | 26.19 ± 11.00 | 23.95 ± 12.60 | 26.52 ± 13.44 | [23.63, 27.06] |
Animations viewed on workdays (hours per day) | 1.98 ± 1.16 | 1.68 ± 1.11 | 2.21 ± 1.07 | 1.76 ± 1.12 | [1.78, 2.07] |
Animations viewed over weekends (hours per day) | 2.10 ± 0.98 | 1.63 ± 0.96 | 2.02 ± 0.98 | 1.70 ± 0.92 | [1.72, 2.00] |
Pre-EF score | 2.65 ± 0.53 | 2.56 ± 0.64 | 2.57 ± 0.60 | 2.70 ± 0.61 | [2.54, 2.69] |
Inhibitory Control | Working Memory | Cognitive Flexibility | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age | High Fantasy | Low Fantasy | High Fantasy | Low Fantasy | High Fantasy | Low Fantasy | ||||||
Fast paced | Slow paced | Fast paced | Slow paced | Fast paced | Slow paced | Fast paced | Slow paced | Fast paced | Slow paced | Fast paced | Slow paced | |
4 | 10.36 ± 3.30 | 11.29 ± 2.89 | 13.79 ± 1.58 | 13.29 ± 1.49 | 2.07 ± 1.00 | 1.93 ± 0.62 | 2.86 ± 0.60 | 2.43 ± 0.65 | 6.79 ± 2.23 | 6.64 ± 1.95 | 8.57 ± 1.34 | 8.00 ± 1.30 |
5 | 11.29 ± 2.02 | 11.93 ± 1.59 | 14.08 ± 1.32 | 15.21 ± 0.89 | 2.29 ± 0.83 | 2.07 ± 0.62 | 3.23 ± 0.83 | 3.21 ± 0.80 | 7.57 ± 2.31 | 7.21 ± 2.86 | 8.92 ± 1.26 | 9.36 ± 0.75 |
6 | 12.14 ± 1.17 | 12.29 ± 1.27 | 14.73 ± 0.96 | 13.79 ± 1.25 | 2.43 ± 0.51 | 2.57 ± 0.51 | 3.53 ± 0.83 | 3.50 ± 0.65 | 7.36 ± 1.55 | 7.21 ± 1.59 | 9.47 ± 0.92 | 8.57 ± 1.70 |
7 | 13.67 ± 1.68 | 14.33 ± 1.28 | 14.56 ± 1.42 | 14.83 ± 1.20 | 3.17 ± 0.79 | 3.44 ± 0.86 | 4.11 ± 1.08 | 4.00 ± 0.77 | 7.61 ± 1.61 | 8.33 ± 1.61 | 9.50 ± 0.79 | 9.50 ± 0.86 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Fan, L.; Zhan, M.; Qing, W.; Gao, T.; Wang, M. The Short-Term Impact of Animation on the Executive Function of Children Aged 4 to 7. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 8616. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168616
Fan L, Zhan M, Qing W, Gao T, Wang M. The Short-Term Impact of Animation on the Executive Function of Children Aged 4 to 7. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(16):8616. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168616
Chicago/Turabian StyleFan, Liheng, Meichen Zhan, Wenjing Qing, Tan Gao, and Mengying Wang. 2021. "The Short-Term Impact of Animation on the Executive Function of Children Aged 4 to 7" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 16: 8616. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168616
APA StyleFan, L., Zhan, M., Qing, W., Gao, T., & Wang, M. (2021). The Short-Term Impact of Animation on the Executive Function of Children Aged 4 to 7. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(16), 8616. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168616