I Need a Doctor, Call Me a Doctor: Attachment and the Evaluation of General Practitioners before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Attachment and Threat Evaluation
2. Methodology
2.1. Pre-Test
2.2. Pre-Onset of COVID-19 Experiment and Questionnaire
2.2.1 Measures
Overall Doctor Rating
Attachment Orientations
Personality
Demographics
2.3. Post-Onset of COVID-19 Experiment and Questionnaire
2.4. Measures
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Mariani, R.; Renzi, A.; Di Monte, C.; Petrovska, E.; Di Trani, M. The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Primary Emotional Systems and Emotional Regulation. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 5742. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McCleskey, J.; Gruda, D. Risk-taking, resilience, and state anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic: A coming of (old) age story. Personal. Individ. Differ. 2020, 110485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gable, S.L.; Berkman, E.T. 12: Making Connections and Avoiding Loneliness: Approach and Avoidance Social Motives and Goals. In Handbook of Approach and Avoidance Motivation; Psychology Press: New York, NY, USA, 2013; p. 203. [Google Scholar]
- Willis, J.; Todorov, A. First impressions: Making up your mind after a 100-ms exposure to a face. Psychol. Sci. 2006, 17, 592–598. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oosterhof, N.N.; Todorov, A. Shared perceptual basis of emotional expressions and trustworthiness impressions from faces. Emotion 2009, 9, 128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Cosmides, L.; Tooby, J. Evolutionary psychology and the emotions. In Handbook of Emotions; Guilford Press: New York, NY, USA, 2000; Volume 2, pp. 91–115. [Google Scholar]
- Van’t Wout, M.; Sanfey, A.G. Friend or foe: The effect of implicit trustworthiness judgments in social decision-making. Cognition 2008, 108, 796–803. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Moccia, L.; Janiri, D.; Pepe, M.; Dattoli, L.; Molinaro, M.; De Martin, V.; Chieffo, D.; Janiri, L.; Fiorillo, A.; Sani, G. Affective temperament, attachment style, and the psychological impact of the COVID-19 outbreak: An early report on the Italian general population. Brain Behav. Immun. 2020, 87, 75–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bowlby, J. Attachment and Loss: Loss, Sadness and Depression (Vol. 3); Basic: New York, NY, USA, 1980. [Google Scholar]
- Dykas, M.J.; Cassidy, J. Attachment and the processing of social information across the life span: Theory and evidence. Psychol. Bull. 2011, 137, 19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kafetsios, K. Collective reactions to epidemic threat: Attachment and cultural orientations predict Covid-19 infection and mortality rates and trajectories. 2021; MS Under Revision. [Google Scholar]
- Kafetsios, K. Self-construal and insecure attachment variation and co-variation during a period of economic crisis: A natural experiment. 2021; MS Under Revision. [Google Scholar]
- Cypryańska, M.; Nezlek, J.B. Anxiety as a mediator of relationships between perceptions of the threat of COVID-19 and coping behaviors during the onset of the pandemic in Poland. PLoS ONE 2020, 15, e0241464. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Faulkner, J.; Schaller, M.; Park, J.H.; Duncan, L.A. Evolved disease-avoidance mechanisms and contemporary xenophobic attitudes. Group Process. Intergroup Relat. 2004, 7, 333–353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rowe, A.; Carnelley, K.B. Attachment style differences in the processing of attachment–relevant information: Primed–style effects on recall, interpersonal expectations, and affect. Pers. Relatsh. 2003, 10, 59–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chavis, J.; Kisley, M.A. Adult attachment and motivated attention to social images: Attachment-based differences in event-related brain potentials to emotional images. J. Res. Personal. 2012, 46, 55–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Fraley, R.C.; Waller, N.G.; Brennan, K.A. An item response theory analysis of self-report measures of adult attachment. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 2000, 78, 350. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Edelstein, R.S. Attachment and emotional memory: Investigating the source and extent of avoidant memory impairments. Emotion 2006, 6, 340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Andriopoulos, P.; Kafetsios, K. Avoidant attachment and the processing of emotion information: Selective attention or cognitive Avoidance? J. Relatsh. Res. 2015, 6, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mikulincer, M.; Shaver, P.R.; Pereg, D. Attachment theory and affect regulation: The dynamics, development, and cognitive consequences of attachment-related strategies. Motiv. Emot. 2003, 27, 77–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Silva, C.; Soares, I.; Esteves, F. Attachment insecurity and strategies for regulation: When emotion triggers attention. Scand. J. Psychol. 2012, 53, 9–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dewitte, M.; De Houwer, J. Adult attachment and attention to positive and negative emotional face expressions. J. Res. Personal. 2008, 42, 498–505. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, F.; Hazan, C. Working models of attachment and person perception processes. Pers. Relatsh. 2002, 9, 225–235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gillath, O.; Bunge, S.A.; Shaver, P.R.; Wendelken, C.; Mikulincer, M. Attachment-style differences in the ability to suppress negative thoughts: Exploring the neural correlates. Neuroimage 2005, 28, 835–847. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mikulincer, M. Adult attachment style and affect regulation: Strategic variations in self-appraisals. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 1998, 75, 420. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Niedenthal, P.M.; Brauer, M.; Robin, L.; Innes-Ker, Å.H. Adult attachment and the perception of facial expression of emotion. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 2002, 82, 419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kafetsios, K.; Hantzara, K.; Anagnostopoulos, F.; Niakas, D. Doctors’ attachment orientations, emotion regulation strategies, and patient satisfaction: A multilevel analysis. Health Commun. 2016, 31, 772–777. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Holwerda, N.; Sanderman, R.; Pool, G.; Hinnen, C.; Langendijk, J.A.; Bemelman, W.A.; Hagedoorn, M.; Sprangers, M.A. Do patients trust their physician? The role of attachment style in the patient-physician relationship within one year after a cancer diagnosis. Acta Oncol. 2013, 52, 110–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gillath, O.; Hart, J. The effects of psychological security and insecurity on political attitudes and leadership preferences. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 2010, 40, 122–134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kafetsios, K.; Andriopoulos, P.; Papachiou, A. Relationship status moderates avoidant attachment differences in positive emotion decoding accuracy. Pers. Relatsh. 2014, 21, 191–205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fraley, R.C.; Hudson, N.W.; Heffernan, M.E.; Segal, N. Are adult attachment styles categorical or dimensional? A taxometric analysis of general and relationship-specific attachment orientations. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 2015, 109, 354–368. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gruda, D.; Kafetsios, K. Attachment Orientations Guide the Transfer of Leadership Judgments: Culture Matters. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 2020, 46, 525–546. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mason, W.; Suri, S. Conducting behavioral research on Amazon’s Mechanical Turk. Behav. Res. Methods 2012, 44, 1–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Richards, D.A.; Schat, A.C. Attachment at (not to) work: Applying attachment theory to explain individual behavior in organizations. J. Appl. Psychol. 2011, 96, 169–182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brennan, K.A.; Clark, C.L.; Shaver, P.R. Self-report measurement of adult attachment. In Attachment Theory and Close Relationships; The Guilford Press: New York, NY, USA, 1998; pp. 46–76. [Google Scholar]
- Goldberg, L.R.; Johnson, J.A.; Eber, H.W.; Hogan, R.; Ashton, M.C.; Cloninger, C.R.; Gough, H.G. The international personality item pool and the future of public-domain personality measures. J. Res. Personal. 2006, 40, 84–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ahorsu, D.K.; Lin, C.-Y.; Imani, V.; Saffari, M.; Griffiths, M.D.; Pakpour, A.H. The fear of COVID-19 scale: Development and initial validation. Int. J. Ment. Health Addict. 2020, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Gruda, D.; Ojo, A. Inferring the Relationship between Anxiety and Extraversion from Tweets during COVID19–A Linguistic Analytics Approach. In Proceedings of the 54th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Kauai, HI, USA, 5–8 January 2021; p. 2689. [Google Scholar]
- Vrtička, P.; Sander, D.; Vuilleumier, P. Influence of adult attachment style on the perception of social and non-social emotional scenes. J. Soc. Pers. Relatsh. 2012, 29, 530–544. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Berant, E.; Mikulincer, M.; Shaver, P.R. Mothers’ attachment style, their mental health, and their children’s emotional vulnerabilities: A 7-year study of children with congenital heart disease. J. Personal. 2008, 76, 31–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sakman, E.; Sümer, N. Attachment (in) security and threat priming influence signal detection performance. J. Soc. Pers. Relatsh. 2018, 35, 889–916. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Vrticka, P.; Vuilleumier, P. Neuroscience of human social interactions and adult attachment style. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 2012, 6, 212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lozano, E.B.; Fraley, R.C. Put your mask on first to help others: Attachment and sentinel behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic. Personal. Individ. Differ. 2021, 171, 110487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
M | SD | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | Doctor Rating | 3.57 | 1.05 | - | |||||||||
(2) | Positive signal | 1.96 | 1.01 | 0.56 *** | - | ||||||||
(3) | Anxious Attachment | 2.82 | 1.31 | −0.01 | 0.05 | (0.96) | |||||||
(4) | Avoidant Attachment | 3.66 | 1.37 | −0.05 | 0.00 | 0.43 *** | (0.96) | ||||||
(5) | Openness to Experience | 3.93 | 0.91 | 0.00 | 0.04 | −0.16 *** | −0.15 *** | (0.83) | |||||
(6) | Conscientiousness | 3.90 | 0.86 | −0.06 | −0.05 | −0.39 *** | −0.22 *** | 0.13 * | (0.79) | ||||
(7) | Extraversion | 2.55 | 1.15 | −0.00 | −0.03 | −0.27 *** | −0.52 *** | 0.31 *** | 0.17 *** | (0.90) | |||
(8) | Agreeableness | 3.84 | 0.90 | −0.04 | −0.00 | −0.17 *** | −0.56 *** | 0.27 *** | 0.19 *** | 0.33 *** | (0.86) | ||
(9) | Neuroticism | 2.25 | 0.96 | 0.00 | 0.07 | 0.59 *** | 0.38 *** | −0.15 ** | −0.46 *** | −0.29 *** | −0.15 ** | (0.81) | |
(10) | Age | 4.68 | 0.77 | −0.01 | 0.02 | −0.21 *** | −0.04 | −0.01 | 0.12 * | 0.00 | 0.06 | −0.17 ** | - |
(11) | Gender | 0.55 | 0.50 | −0.03 | −0.07 | −0.01 | 0.07 | 0.08 | 0.04 | −0.00 | −0.19 *** | −0.21 *** | −0.09 |
M | SD | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | (11) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | Doctor Rating | 3.58 | 1.06 | - | ||||||||||
(2) | Positive signals | 2.0 | 0.99 | 0.49 *** | ||||||||||
(3) | Anxious Attachment | 2.70 | 1.27 | 0.03 | 0.02 | (0.96) | ||||||||
(4) | Avoidant Attachment | 3.57 | 1.37 | −0.10 | −0.03 | 0.39 *** | (0.97) | |||||||
(5) | COVID Fear | 2.74 | 1.09 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.18 ** | 0.01 | (0.67) | ||||||
(6) | Openness to Experience | 4.02 | 0.89 | 0.08 | 0.04 | −0.13 * | −0.25 *** | 0.02 | (0.80) | |||||
(7) | Conscientiousness | 4.10 | 0.77 | 0.03 | 0.10 | −0.44 *** | −0.25 *** | −0.08 | 0.06 | (0.78) | ||||
(8) | Extraversion | 2.64 | 1.14 | 0.04 | −0.05 | −0.24 *** | −0.59 *** | 0.05 | 0.33 *** | 0.19 ** | (0.90) | |||
(9) | Agreeableness | 3.97 | 0.82 | 0.13 | 0.06 | −0.20 ** | −0.62 *** | 0.03 | 0.30 *** | 0.18 ** | 0.35 *** | (0.84) | ||
(10) | Neuroticism | 2.20 | 0.93 | −0.12 | −0.06 | 0.64 *** | 0.39 *** | 0.22 *** | −0.30 *** | −0.37 *** | −0.34 *** | −0.21 ** | (0.82) | |
(11) | Age | 4.91 | 0.87 | −0.07 | −0.03 | −0.25 *** | −0.09 | −0.13 * | −0.10 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.06 | −0.29 *** | - |
(12) | Gender | 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.23 *** | 0.09 | 0.01 | 0.10 | −0.08 | 0.18 ** | −0.01 | 0.04 | −0.26 *** | −0.17 * | −0.11 |
Coef. | t-Value | Low 95% CI | High 95% CI | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Corona (pre/post) | −3.90 * | −2.28 | −7.25 | −0.54 |
Signal (0) | (base level) | |||
Signal (1) | 1.87 † | 1.88 | −0.09 | 3.8 |
Signal (2) | 1.37 † | 1.79 | −0.13 | 2.86 |
Signal (3) | 2.11 ** | 2.82 | 0.64 | 3.58 |
Signal (4) | 3.06 *** | 5.59 | 1.98 | 4.13 |
Corona X Signal (0) | (base level) | |||
Corona X Signal (1) | 2.85 | 1.41 | −1.13 | 6.83 |
Corona X Signal (2) | 5.01 * | 2.55 | 1.16 | 8.86 |
Corona X Signal (3) | 4.65 * | 2.50 | 1.00 | 8.29 |
Corona X Signal (4) | 3.66 * | 2.04 | 0.13 | 7.19 |
Anxious Attachment | 0.03 | 0.24 | −0.19 | 0.238 |
Corona X Anxious Attachment | 2.01 ** | 2.71 | 0.55 | 3.47 |
Corona X Signal (0) X Anxious Attachment | (base level) | |||
Corona X Signal (1) X Anxious Attachment | −1.57 † | −1.86 | −3.22 | 0.09 |
Corona X Signal (2) X Anxious Attachment | −2.38 ** | −2.78 | −4.07 | −0.70 |
Corona X Signal (3) X Anxious Attachment | −2.29 ** | −2.91 | −3.83 | −0.75 |
Corona X Signal (4) X Anxious Attachment | −1.95 * | −2.54 | −3.46 | −0.44 |
Avoidant Attachment | 0.19 | 1.41 | −0.07 | 0.44 |
Corona X Avoidant Attachment | 1.22 * | 1.97 | 0.01 | 2.44 |
Corona X Signal (0) X Avoidant Attachment | (base level) | |||
Corona X Signal (1) X Avoidant Attachment | −0.90 | −1.32 | −2.25 | 0.45 |
Corona X Signal (2) X Avoidant Attachment | −1.48 * | −2.21 | −2.79 | −0.17 |
Corona X Signal (3) X Avoidant Attachment | −1.71 * | −2.59 | −3.00 | −0.41 |
Corona X Signal (4) X Avoidant Attachment | −1.21 † | −1.92 | −2.45 | 0.03 |
Anxious X Avoidant Attachment | −0.017 | −0.56 | −0.07 | 0.04 |
Corona X Anxious X Avoidant Attachment | −0.59 * | −2.32 | −1.09 | −0.09 |
Corona X Signal (0) X Anxious X Avoidant Attachment | (base level) | |||
Corona X Signal (1) X Anxious X Avoidant Attachment | 0.48 † | 1.76 | −0.06 | 1.01 |
Corona X Signal (2) X Anxious X Avoidant Attachment | 0.68 * | 2.47 | 0.14 | 1.21 |
Corona X Signal (3) X Anxious X Avoidant Attachment | 0.73 ** | 2.77 | 0.213 | 1.25 |
Corona X Signal (4) X Anxious X Avoidant Attachment | 0.59 * | 2.29 | 0.08 | 1.09 |
Constant | 1.90 *** | 4.14 | 1.00 | 2.80 |
R2 | 0.33 *** |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Gruda, D.; Kafetsios, K. I Need a Doctor, Call Me a Doctor: Attachment and the Evaluation of General Practitioners before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7914. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18157914
Gruda D, Kafetsios K. I Need a Doctor, Call Me a Doctor: Attachment and the Evaluation of General Practitioners before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(15):7914. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18157914
Chicago/Turabian StyleGruda, Dritjon, and Konstantinos Kafetsios. 2021. "I Need a Doctor, Call Me a Doctor: Attachment and the Evaluation of General Practitioners before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 15: 7914. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18157914