Hand-Washing Practices among Adolescents Aged 12–15 Years from 80 Countries
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Hand-Washing Practices
2.2. Food Insecurity (Proxy of Socioeconomic Status)
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
References
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Country-Income | Country | Year | Response Rate (%) | N a | Male (%) | Age (Years) Mean (SD) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low | Afghanistan | 2014 | 79 | 1493 | 53.4 | 14.0 (0.9) |
Benin | 2016 | 78 | 717 | 65.6 | 14.2 (0.9) | |
Cambodia | 2013 | 85 | 1812 | 48.4 | 14.1 (0.8) | |
Kenya | 2003 | 84 | 2971 | 47.5 | 13.9 (1.0) | |
Liberia | 2017 | 71 | 541 | 50.1 | 14.0 (0.9) | |
Malawi | 2009 | 94 | 2224 | 51.5 | 14.0 (0.8) | |
Mozambique | 2015 | 80 | 668 | 49.6 | 14.1 (0.8) | |
Nepal | 2015 | 69 | 4616 | 47.3 | 13.8 (1.0) | |
Senegal | 2005 | 60 | 2666 | 60.2 | 13.9 (1.0) | |
Tanzania | 2014 | 87 | 2615 | 46.8 | 13.6 (1.0) | |
Uganda | 2003 | 69 | 1904 | 47.4 | 14.3 (0.8) | |
Zambia | 2004 | 70 | 1365 | 50.3 | 13.9 (1.0) | |
Low middle | Bangladesh | 2014 | 91 | 2753 | 63.4 | 14.0 (0.8) |
Belize | 2011 | 88 | 1600 | 48.4 | 13.6 (1.1) | |
Bolivia | 2012 | 88 | 2804 | 49.7 | 14.0 (0.9) | |
Djibouti | 2007 | 83 | 962 | 59.5 | 14.3 (0.8) | |
East Timor | 2015 | 79 | 1631 | 46.3 | 14.1 (1.0) | |
Egypt | 2011 | 85 | 2364 | 49.2 | 13.5 (0.9) | |
El Salvador | 2013 | 88 | 1615 | 50.6 | 14.0 (0.9) | |
Eswatini | 2013 | 97 | 1318 | 39.1 | 14.1 (0.8) | |
Ghana | 2012 | 82 | 1110 | 49.1 | 13.8 (1.0) | |
Guatemala | 2015 | 82 | 3611 | 50.9 | 13.9 (0.9) | |
Guyana | 2010 | 76 | 1973 | 48.6 | 14.1 (0.8) | |
Honduras | 2012 | 79 | 1486 | 46.1 | 13.6 (1.0) | |
India | 2007 | 83 | 7330 | 57.4 | 13.9 (0.9) | |
Indonesia | 2015 | 94 | 8806 | 49.2 | 13.5 (1.0) | |
Jordan | 2007 | 99.8 | 1648 | 47.3 | 14.3 (0.7) | |
Kiribati | 2011 | 85 | 1340 | 45.5 | 14.0 (0.9) | |
Laos | 2015 | 70 | 1644 | 47.8 | 14.5 (0.8) | |
Maldives | 2009 | 80 | 1981 | 47.9 | 14.4 (0.7) | |
Mauritania | 2010 | 70 | 1285 | 53.2 | 14.2 (0.9) | |
Mongolia | 2013 | 88 | 3707 | 49.4 | 13.7 (1.0) | |
Morocco | 2016 | 91 | 3975 | 50.9 | 13.6 (1.1) | |
Myanmar | 2016 | 86 | 2237 | 46.3 | 13.6 (0.9) | |
Northern Macedonia | 2007 | 93 | 1550 | 51.6 | 13.9 (0.9) | |
Pakistan | 2009 | 76 | 4998 | 60.8 | 14.1 (0.8) | |
Philippines | 2015 | 79 | 6162 | 48.1 | 13.9 (0.9) | |
Samoa | 2011 | 79 | 2200 | 47.4 | 14.0 (0.8) | |
Solomon Islands | 2011 | 85 | 925 | 52.1 | 14.1 (0.9) | |
Sri Lanka | 2016 | 89 | 2254 | 49.3 | 13.9 (0.9) | |
Sudan | 2012 | 77 | 1401 | 51.9 | 14.2 (0.8) | |
Syria | 2010 | 97 | 2929 | 51.2 | 13.6 (1.0) | |
Tunisia | 2008 | 83 | 2549 | 49.7 | 13.6 (1.0) | |
Vanuatu | 2016 | 57 | 1288 | 47.8 | 14.1 (0.9) | |
Vietnam | 2013 | 96 | 1743 | 46.6 | 14.5 (0.6) | |
Yemen | 2014 | 75 | 1553 | 56.3 | 13.8 (1.0) | |
Upper middle | Algeria | 2011 | 98 | 3484 | 45.8 | 13.6 (1.1) |
Antigua & Barbuda | 2009 | 67 | 1235 | 51.4 | 13.9 (0.9) | |
Argentina | 2012 | 71 | 21,528 | 47.7 | 13.9 (0.9) | |
Botswana | 2005 | 95 | 1397 | 46.2 | 14.3 (0.8) | |
Costa Rica | 2009 | 72 | 2265 | 49.6 | 14.0 (0.9) | |
Dominican Republic | 2016 | 63 | 954 | 48.6 | 14.3 (1.0) | |
Grenada | 2008 | 78 | 1299 | 42.7 | 13.7 (1.1) | |
Iraq | 2012 | 88 | 1533 | 54.7 | 13.9 (1.0) | |
Lebanon | 2017 | 82 | 3347 | 47.4 | 13.6 (1.0) | |
Libya | 2007 | 98 | 1891 | 49.2 | 13.6 (1.0) | |
Malaysia | 2012 | 89 | 16,273 | 49.5 | 14.0 (0.9) | |
Mauritius | 2017 | 84 | 1955 | 45.8 | 13.9 (0.8) | |
Namibia | 2013 | 89 | 1936 | 42.9 | 14.1 (0.9) | |
Paraguay | 2017 | 87 | 1972 | 47.5 | 13.9 (1.0) | |
Peru | 2010 | 85 | 2359 | 49.9 | 14.1 (0.8) | |
St. Lucia | 2007 | 82 | 1072 | 44.5 | 13.7 (1.1) | |
St. Vincent & the Grenadines | 2007 | 84 | 1188 | 46.2 | 13.5 (1.0) | |
Suriname | 2016 | 83 | 1453 | 46.1 | 13.8 (1.0) | |
Thailand | 2015 | 89 | 4132 | 49.6 | 13.7 (1.0) | |
Tonga | 2017 | 90 | 2067 | 51.4 | 13.6 (1.1) | |
Tuvalu | 2013 | 90 | 679 | 48.9 | 13.3 (1.1) | |
High | Bahamas | 2013 | 78 | 1308 | 47.3 | 13.4 (1.0) |
Barbados | 2011 | 73 | 1504 | 51.1 | 14.1 (0.8) | |
Brunei Darussalam | 2014 | 65 | 1824 | 48.2 | 14.0 (0.9) | |
Cayman Islands | 2007 | 79 | 1147 | 52.0 | 13.5 (1.0) | |
Curaçao | 2015 | 83 | 1498 | 49.8 | 13.9 (1.1) | |
French Polynesia | 2015 | 70 | 1902 | 49.7 | 13.7 (1.0) | |
Kuwait | 2015 | 78 | 2034 | 49.4 | 14.1 (0.9) | |
Oman | 2015 | 92 | 1669 | 47.1 | 14.2 (0.8) | |
Qatar | 2011 | 87 | 1781 | 47.2 | 13.4 (1.0) | |
St. Kitts & Nevis | 2011 | 70 | 1471 | 50.2 | 14.1 (0.8) | |
Trinidad & Tobago | 2017 | 89 | 2763 | 48.3 | 13.6 (1.1) | |
United Arab Emirates | 2016 | 80 | 3471 | 48.1 | 13.9 (1.0) | |
Uruguay | 2012 | 77 | 2869 | 46.3 | 14.1 (0.8) |
Country-Income | Country | % | 95%CI | % | 95%CI | % | 95%CI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low | Afghanistan | 6.0 | [4.4,8.2] | 5.6 | [3.6,8.6] | 11.6 | [8.0,16.6] |
Benin | 6.4 | [4.3,9.2] | 10.6 | [5.6,19.2] | 18.5 | [13.2,25.3] | |
Cambodia | 2.1 | [1.5,3.0] | 3.0 | [2.2,4.2] | 2.9 | [2.2,3.7] | |
Kenya | 8.6 | [7.0,10.5] | 13.9 | [11.9,16.1] | 16.6 | [14.1,19.5] | |
Liberia | 12.3 | [9.2,16.4] | 6.3 | [4.1,9.6] | 9.6 | [6.9,13.3] | |
Malawi | 4.1 | [2.2,7.6] | 5.3 | [3.3,8.4] | 16.7 | [13.5,20.4] | |
Mozambique | 7.4 | [4.9,11.1] | 7.8 | [4.9,12.1] | 11.7 | [7.1,18.7] | |
Nepal | 4.0 | [2.8,5.7] | 4.4 | [3.3,5.8] | 4.8 | [3.8,6.2] | |
Senegal | 10.2 | [4.9,20.0] | 10.0 | [4.8,19.7] | 14.7 | [9.4,22.4] | |
Tanzania | 7.3 | [6.1,8.7] | 17.3 | [14.3,20.8] | 20.7 | [18.2,23.4] | |
Uganda | 6.3 | [5.0,8.0] | 8.0 | [6.1,10.5] | 14.7 | [12.2,17.7] | |
Zambia | 12.5 | [10.3,15.1] | 15.4 | [12.9,18.3] | 20.8 | [18.1,23.8] | |
Lower middle | Bangladesh | 3.1 | [1.8,5.2] | 1.9 | [0.8,4.4] | 5.0 | [2.8,8.6] |
Belize | 3.7 | [3.1,4.4] | 1.6 | [1.2,2.2] | 4.6 | [3.6,5.8] | |
Bolivia | 10.8 | [9.4,12.4] | 7.3 | [6.1,8.7] | 16.0 | [13.8,18.5] | |
Djibouti | 6.0 | [4.6,7.7] | 12.9 | [11.4,14.6] | 11.7 | [9.4,14.5] | |
East Timor | 20.9 | [18.8,23.2] | 27.5 | [24.5,30.8] | 18.9 | [16.4,21.6] | |
Egypt | 12.9 | [10.5,15.7] | 9.3 | [6.9,12.5] | 7.8 | [5.7,10.6] | |
El Salvador | 5.3 | [4.1,6.8] | 4.0 | [2.7,6.1] | 5.7 | [4.5,7.3] | |
Eswatini | 3.6 | [2.3,5.5] | 2.8 | [2.3,3.5] | 11.6 | [10.0,13.4] | |
Ghana | 7.5 | [4.6,12.2] | 7.8 | [5.0,11.8] | 10.6 | [8.6,13.1] | |
Guatemala | 4.5 | [2.8,7.1] | 2.7 | [1.5,4.7] | 5.7 | [4.2,7.6] | |
Guyana | 9.2 | [7.4,11.3] | 6.4 | [4.8,8.4] | 10.7 | [8.5,13.3] | |
Honduras | 7.5 | [6.4,8.7] | 5.2 | [4.0,6.7] | 58.6 | [54.9,62.3] | |
India | 5.9 | [5.0,7.1] | 3.3 | [2.7,4.1] | 13.0 | [11.4,14.7] | |
Indonesia | 2.5 | [2.0,3.0] | 2.3 | [1.8,2.9] | 3.9 | [3.3,4.7] | |
Jordan | 6.8 | [5.5,8.3] | 7.0 | [5.0,9.7] | 9.2 | [7.4,11.5] | |
Kiribati | 20.6 | [16.3,25.7] | 16.1 | [13.1,19.5] | 15.4 | [13.2,17.9] | |
Laos | 1.9 | [1.1,3.2] | 3.8 | [2.5,5.9] | 8.5 | [6.7,10.7] | |
Maldives | 8.5 | [7.1,10.1] | 4.7 | [3.7,5.8] | 7.2 | [5.9,8.8] | |
Mauritania | 7.6 | [6.2,9.2] | 24.4 | [17.8,32.4] | 12.1 | [9.4,15.6] | |
Mongolia | 6.9 | [5.9,8.0] | 10.5 | [8.9,12.3] | 3.0 | [2.4,3.8] | |
Morocco | 4.8 | [4.1,5.5] | 6.2 | [5.1,7.6] | 10.4 | [8.6,12.5] | |
Myanmar | 6.7 | [5.5,8.2] | 8.4 | [6.8,10.4] | 5.8 | [4.7,7.1] | |
Northern Macedonia | 2.1 | [1.5,3.0] | 2.1 | [1.4,3.2] | 3.8 | [2.7,5.3] | |
Pakistan | 3.4 | [2.7,4.4] | 3.4 | [2.5,4.6] | 8.0 | [6.3,10.2] | |
Philippines | 7.7 | [4.9,11.8] | 6.3 | [3.9,10.0] | 7.9 | [5.4,11.5] | |
Samoa | 14.6 | [12.9,16.4] | 17.1 | [14.9,19.5] | 19.3 | [17.1,21.7] | |
Solomon Islands | 8.6 | [7.2,10.2] | 8.9 | [6.9,11.5] | 10.3 | [7.4,14.0] | |
Sri Lanka | 2.7 | [1.9,3.9] | 3.0 | [2.1,4.1] | 7.1 | [5.6,9.0] | |
Sudan | 7.5 | [6.0,9.4] | 11.9 | [9.9,14.1] | 20.9 | [16.7,25.9] | |
Syria | 9.2 | [7.5,11.3] | 3.8 | [2.5,5.8] | 6.7 | [5.1,8.8] | |
Tunisia | 6.0 | [5.2,6.9] | 4.0 | [3.2,4.9] | 4.7 | [3.7,5.9] | |
Vanuatu | 4.2 | [3.3,5.5] | 5.1 | [3.9,6.6] | 6.4 | [5.1,8.1] | |
Vietnam | 7.0 | [5.4,9.0] | 2.2 | [1.5,3.3] | 8.5 | [6.5,10.9] | |
Yemen | 7.2 | [5.1,10.1] | 11.2 | [9.6,13.0] | 15.3 | [12.7,18.4] | |
Upper middle | Algeria | 5.6 | [4.9,6.4] | 3.1 | [2.5,3.8] | 5.1 | [4.4,5.8] |
Antigua & Barbuda | 12.2 | [10.5,14.2] | 5.1 | [3.9,6.7] | 7.1 | [5.7,8.9] | |
Argentina | 11.2 | [10.1,12.4] | 5.9 | [5.0,7.0] | 6.2 | [5.5,7.1] | |
Botswana | 4.5 | [3.3,6.1] | 5.1 | [4.3,6.2] | 17.0 | [13.9,20.7] | |
Costa Rica | 9.6 | [8.3,11.1] | 2.2 | [1.7,2.8] | 5.4 | [4.5,6.5] | |
Dominica | 14.1 | [10.1,19.2] | 5.3 | [3.7,7.7] | 8.6 | [5.8,12.6] | |
Grenada | 11.4 | [9.5,13.6] | 3.5 | [2.8,4.4] | 10.1 | [8.4,12.1] | |
Iraq | 7.3 | [5.6,9.6] | 8.1 | [6.3,10.3] | 4.0 | [3.0,5.4] | |
Lebanon | 4.1 | [3.3,5.0] | 1.6 | [1.1,2.4] | 2.2 | [1.9,2.7] | |
Libya | 8.1 | [6.3,10.4] | 6.8 | [5.5,8.5] | 7.4 | [5.9,9.1] | |
Malaysia | 5.0 | [4.5,5.6] | 6.0 | [5.3,6.7] | 13.6 | [12.7,14.6] | |
Mauritius | 13.9 | [11.1,17.4] | 4.0 | [2.7,6.0] | 8.2 | [6.1,10.8] | |
Namibia | 5.5 | [4.4,6.8] | 6.4 | [5.1,8.0] | 10.8 | [8.8,13.1] | |
Paraguay | 8.0 | [6.6,9.7] | 2.6 | [1.9,3.5] | 6.1 | [5.0,7.4] | |
Peru | 4.9 | [3.8,6.2] | 6.6 | [5.5,7.9] | 7.5 | [6.0,9.4] | |
St. Lucia | 16.5 | [14.0,19.3] | 4.4 | [3.4,5.6] | 11.1 | [9.1,13.4] | |
St. Vincent & the Grenadines | 8.7 | [6.7,11.3] | 4.1 | [3.0,5.5] | 8.3 | [6.6,10.3] | |
Suriname | 11.2 | [8.8,14.2] | 4.3 | [3.0,6.1] | 8.1 | [6.7,9.9] | |
Thailand | 14.9 | [12.5,17.7] | 6.5 | [5.4,7.9] | 14.4 | [12.3,16.9] | |
Tonga | 14.9 | [12.9,17.0] | 7.8 | [6.5,9.4] | 20.2 | [18.2,22.4] | |
Tuvalu | 38.5 | [34.9,42.4] | 17.7 | [15.0,20.8] | 18.0 | [15.2,21.0] | |
High | Bahamas | 15.6 | [13.5,18.0] | 4.5 | [3.4,5.8] | 8.7 | [7.2,10.4] |
Barbados | 14.3 | [11.9,17.1] | 1.7 | [1.2,2.5] | 7.9 | [6.4,9.7] | |
Brunei Darussalam | 3.5 | [2.7,4.5] | 2.9 | [1.9,4.4] | 9.7 | [8.1,11.5] | |
Cayman Islands | 10.8 | [9.1,12.8] | 4.4 | [3.4,5.8] | 5.9 | [4.7,7.5] | |
Curaçao | 12.2 | [10.2,14.4] | 3.6 | [2.6,4.8] | 6.5 | [5.1,8.3] | |
French Polynesia | 8.4 | [6.5,10.7] | 5.7 | [4.2,7.8] | 11.5 | [9.8,13.6] | |
Kuwait | 10.7 | [9.0,12.7] | 6.2 | [4.8,8.0] | 7.4 | [5.6,9.8] | |
Oman | 7.9 | [5.9,10.4] | 8.8 | [6.8,11.2] | 7.4 | [5.6,9.8] | |
Qatar | 17.0 | [13.8,20.8] | 15.1 | [12.3,18.4] | 16.4 | [13.0,20.4] | |
St. Kitts & Nevis | 11.6 | [10.1,13.4] | 2.9 | [2.1,3.9] | 6.7 | [5.5,8.1] | |
Trinidad & Tobago | 14.7 | [12.9,16.7] | 3.5 | [2.2,5.5] | 11.7 | [9.4,14.5] | |
United Arab Emirates | 8.1 | [6.9,9.6] | 3.2 | [2.5,4.3] | 4.3 | [3.5,5.3] | |
Uruguay | 12.5 | [10.8,14.5] | 6.9 | [5.5,8.5] | 3.6 | [2.7,4.8] |
Outcome | Country-Income | OR (95%CI) | I2 (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Before eating | Low | 1.36 [1.12,1.66] | 14.8 |
Lower middle a | 1.29 [1.17,1.43] | 50.8 | |
Upper middle | 1.39 [1.22,1.57] | 59.7 | |
High | 1.38 [1.17,1.62] | 45.7 | |
Overall | 1.34 [1.25,1.43] | 48.2 | |
After using toilet | Low | 1.42 [1.19,1.70] | 54.8 |
Lower middle | 1.49 [1.34,1.66] | 35.8 | |
Upper middle | 1.82 [1.58,2.09] | 51.3 | |
High | 2.00 [1.62,2.49] | 0.0 | |
Overall | 1.61 [1.50,1.73] | 41.3 | |
Soap | Low | 1.34 [1.17,1.52] | 62.8 |
Lower middle b | 1.26 [1.13,1.40] | 50.4 | |
Upper middle | 1.63 [1.45,1.84] | 67.7 | |
High | 1.82 [1.52,2.18] | 0.0 | |
Overall | 1.44 [1.35,1.53] | 57.4 |
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Smith, L.; Butler, L.; Tully, M.A.; Jacob, L.; Barnett, Y.; López-Sánchez, G.F.; López-Bueno, R.; Shin, J.I.; McDermott, D.; Pfeifer, B.A.; et al. Hand-Washing Practices among Adolescents Aged 12–15 Years from 80 Countries. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 138. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010138
Smith L, Butler L, Tully MA, Jacob L, Barnett Y, López-Sánchez GF, López-Bueno R, Shin JI, McDermott D, Pfeifer BA, et al. Hand-Washing Practices among Adolescents Aged 12–15 Years from 80 Countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(1):138. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010138
Chicago/Turabian StyleSmith, Lee, Laurie Butler, Mark A Tully, Louis Jacob, Yvonne Barnett, Guillermo F. López-Sánchez, Rubén López-Bueno, Jae Il Shin, Daragh McDermott, Briona A. Pfeifer, and et al. 2021. "Hand-Washing Practices among Adolescents Aged 12–15 Years from 80 Countries" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 1: 138. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010138