Long-Term Heavy Metal Retention by Mangroves and Effect on Its Growth: A Field Inventory and Scenario Simulation
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- (i)
- Review and re-evaluate HMs contamination degrees in mangrove soil;
- (ii)
- assess the effects of the long-term HM pollution on the growth of R. apiculata in the interactions with the effects of the natural factors soil salinity, ground elevation and tree density; and
- (iii)
- perform scenario simulations of mangrove dynamics under different levels of HM pollution and other natural stressors.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. The Can Gio Mangrove Forest
2.2. Sampling Positions, Samples Preparation, and Analysis
2.3. Tree Growth Model
2.3.1. Tree Growth Equation
2.3.2. Calculation of Tree Growth Rate G
2.4. Data Analysis and Model Parameters Estimation
2.4.1. Data Analysis
2.4.2. Model Parameter Estimation
2.5. Scenarios Setting
- (i)
- The baseline scenario (SC0) which assumed the unpolluted environmental condition. This scenario projects how the system may have developed within a four-decade period (1978–2020) under ideal conditions of no HM pollution.
- (ii)
- Scenario based on actual chromium pollution (SC0P1) in the area in accordance with our observational data.
- (iii)
- Worst case scenario assuming a twofold chromium load (SC0P2).
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. HMs Pollution in the Soil and Potential of HMs Retention by R. apiculata
3.1.1. Soil HMs Pollution in the Area
3.1.2. Potential of the HMs Retention by the Mangrove Species R. apiculata
3.2. Growth of R. apiculata in Different Environmental Conditions
3.2.1. Tree Growth Rate (G) and Influencing Factors
3.2.2. Tree Growth Rate (G) in Polluted Condition
3.3. Simulation Results
3.3.1. Model Validation
3.3.2. Scenarios Simulation Results
3.4. Toward a Balancing Management Approach on Using Mangroves to Clean Up Polluted Environment and to Protect the Mangrove Ecosystem
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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SOIL | ROOT | LEAF | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cu | Cr | Ni | Cu | Cr | Ni | Cu | Cr | Ni | |||
CG | Upstream | NP1 | 80.04 | 4.96 | 3.31 | 0.21 | 1.06 | 0.57 | 0.31 | 1.51 | 0.71 |
DK4 | 70.82 | 3.76 | 2.72 | 0.60 | 0.70 | 0.45 | 0.72 | 0.37 | 0.12 | ||
DK6 | 64.51 | 4.35 | 2.63 | 0.31 | 0.32 | 0.11 | 0.25 | 0.29 | 0.01 | ||
DK7 | 65.65 | 4.44 | 3.08 | 0.54 | 0.26 | 0.17 | 0.39 | 0.40 | 0.09 | ||
DK8 | 75.76 | 4.28 | 3.25 | 0.37 | 1.20 | 0.66 | 0.18 | 0.23 | 0.01 | ||
Downstream | NP2 | 76.62 | 4.49 | 3.06 | 0.47 | 0.32 | 0.22 | 0.36 | 1.27 | 0.46 | |
TV | Upstream | DN1 | 62.41 | 12.39 | 8.49 | 3.07 | 4.46 | 4.90 | 3.53 | 0.39 | 0.14 |
DN2 | 134.03 | 19.84 | 11.35 | 8.17 | 11.69 | 8.54 | 2.12 | 0.49 | 0.01 | ||
M5 | 60.40 | 21.14 | 12.01 | 5.55 | 2.19 | 2.19 | 4.03 | 1.04 | 0.27 | ||
M3 | 79.46 | 13.62 | 8.82 | 4.88 | 1.52 | 1.30 | 3.40 | 2.05 | 1.82 | ||
Downstream | M1 | 82.51 | 14.75 | 5.82 | 3.56 | 5.24 | 3.08 | 7.83 | 1.08 | 0.76 | |
CG | max | 80.04 | 4.96 | 3.31 | 0.60 | 1.20 | 0.66 | 0.72 | 1.51 | 0.71 | |
mean | 72.23 | 4.38 | 3.01 | 0.42 | 0.64 | 0.36 | 0.37 | 0.68 | 0.23 | ||
min | 64.51 | 3.76 | 2.63 | 0.21 | 0.26 | 0.11 | 0.18 | 0.23 | 0.01 | ||
std | 6.29 | 0.39 | 0.28 | 0.15 | 0.41 | 0.23 | 0.19 | 0.56 | 0.29 | ||
TV | max | 134.03 | 21.14 | 12.01 | 8.17 | 11.69 | 8.54 | 7.83 | 2.05 | 1.82 | |
mean | 83.76 | 16.35 | 9.30 | 5.05 | 5.02 | 4.00 | 4.18 | 1.01 | 0.60 | ||
min | 82.51 | 14.75 | 5.82 | 3.56 | 5.24 | 3.08 | 7.83 | 1.08 | 0.76 | ||
std | 29.79 | 3.90 | 2.48 | 2.01 | 4.03 | 2.87 | 2.16 | 0.66 | 0.74 |
Position | Mean dbh (cm) | Mean Height (cm) | Density/Plot (10 × 10 sq·m) | Age (Year) | Porosity Salinity (ppt) | Mean Tree Growth Rate (G) | EF (Cu) | EF (Cr) | EF (Ni) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Can Gio | NP1 | Upstream | 18.62 | 1989.97 | 26 | 26 | 8.0 | 390.53 | 3.41 | 0.11 | 0.09 |
DK4 | 10.46 | 1232.91 | 42 | 32 | 12.4 | 277.08 | 4.13 | 0.11 | 0.10 | ||
DK6 | 22.29 | 2293.78 | 8 | 38 | 12.9 | 275.46 | 2.53 | 0.09 | 0.07 | ||
DK7 | 15.06 | 1673.72 | 13 | 37 | 15.5 | 201.61 | 2.42 | 0.08 | 0.08 | ||
DK8 | 19.71 | 2082.55 | 11 | 40 | 15.5 | 197.74 | 2.62 | 0.07 | 0.07 | ||
NP2 | Downstream | 13.14 | 1501.13 | 16 | 39 | 18.2 | 166.91 | 3.29 | 0.10 | 0.09 | |
Thi Vai | DN1 | Upstream | 16.13 | 1770.92 | 13 | 25 | 8.0 | 332.13 | 1.18 | 0.12 | 0.11 |
DN2 | 16.16 | 1757.51 | 20 | 25 | 9.6 | 331.82 | 3.49 | 0.26 | 0.20 | ||
M5 | 13.99 | 1574.53 | 11 | 31 | 11.3 | 317.36 | 1.83 | 0.32 | 0.24 | ||
M3 | 11.97 | 1381.85 | 20 | 23 | 13.5 | 300.98 | 2.53 | 0.22 | 0.19 | ||
M1 | Downstream | 12.45 | 1428.23 | 17 | 32 | 17.1 | 152.97 | 3.90 | 0.35 | 0.18 |
Location | Species | Part | Cr (mg/kg) | Cu (mg/kg) | Ni (mg/kg) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
This study, Can Gio, Vietnam (2018) | Soil | Soil | 3.76–21.14 | 60.4–134.03 | 2.63–12.01 | This study |
Rhizophora apiculata | Leaves | 0.23–2.05 | 0.18–7.83 | 0.005–1.82 | ||
Roots | 0.26–11.7 | 0.21–8.2 | 0.11–8.54 | |||
Can Gio, Vietnam (2013) | Soil | Soil | 86–241 | 19.7–32.7 | 56.6–247 | [37] |
Rhizophora apiculata | Leaves | 1.48–23.6 | 2.77–6.41 | 1.4–25.7 | ||
Roots | 2.14–90.6 | 0.746–18.3 | 1.79–62.9 | |||
Can Gio, Vietnam (2002–2012) | Sediment core | Sediment | 107.70–208.80 | 26.74–82.32 | 56.25–82.99 | [32] Note: Thi Vai side, upstream |
Can Gio, Vietnam (2002–2012) | Sediment core | Sediment | 51.6–82.5 | 11.5–38.3 | 24.7–46.5 | [32] Note: Thi Vai side, downstream |
Can Gio, Vietnam (1977–2011) | Sediment core | Sediment | 27.1–71.5 | 7.1–27.0 | 11.7–56.3 | [38] Note: Can Gio side |
Mai po, Hong Kong | Soil | Soil | 20–74.6 | 51.1–87.4 | 43.9–86.9 | [53] |
Acanthus ilicifolius | Roots | 1.6–6.2 | 25.2–65.4 | 8–20.1 | ||
Aegicerus corniculatum | Roots | 1.8–5.8 | 22.4–46.2 | 6–32.01 | ||
Kandelia candel | Roots | 1.8–6.4 | 19.6–29.4 | 4–28.001 | ||
Surabaya, Indonesia | Soil | Soil | 47–79.3 | [10,54] | ||
Avicennia alba | Roots | 25.4–55.3 | ||||
Avicennia marina | Roots | 28–92.25 | ||||
Yanbu, Red Sea, Saudi Arabia | Soil | Soil | 14.9–289 | 17.2–217.2 | 27.3–241.8 | [55] |
Avicennia marina | Leaves | 14.2–50.1 | 18.1–40.2 | 16.1–56.3 | ||
Roots | 16.3–40.5 | 16.8–37.3 | 17.2–38.2 |
Parameter | Value | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Density multiplier | 0.402741 | ||||
0.156347 | |||||
(trees/100 m2) | 66.9241 | ||||
Salinity multiplier | 0.21276 | ||||
−0.4 | |||||
(ppt) | 11.348 | ||||
Elevation multiplier | 0.027 | ||||
−0.96 | |||||
13.1 | |||||
1.48 | |||||
6.02 | |||||
0.11 | |||||
Pollutant multiplier | Cu | Cr | Ni | ||
3.28 | 1.89 | 0.53 | |||
54.47 | 170.25 | 105.43 | |||
0.68 | 0.12 | 0.06 | |||
0.81 | 1.69 | 2.53 |
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Nguyen, A.; Richter, O.; Le, B.V.Q.; Phuong, N.T.K.; Dinh, K.C. Long-Term Heavy Metal Retention by Mangroves and Effect on Its Growth: A Field Inventory and Scenario Simulation. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 9131. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17239131
Nguyen A, Richter O, Le BVQ, Phuong NTK, Dinh KC. Long-Term Heavy Metal Retention by Mangroves and Effect on Its Growth: A Field Inventory and Scenario Simulation. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(23):9131. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17239131
Chicago/Turabian StyleNguyen, Anh, Otto Richter, Bao V.Q. Le, Nguyen Thi Kim Phuong, and Kim Chi Dinh. 2020. "Long-Term Heavy Metal Retention by Mangroves and Effect on Its Growth: A Field Inventory and Scenario Simulation" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 23: 9131. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17239131