Understanding the Relationship between Environmental Arsenic and Prostate Cancer Aggressiveness among African-American and European-American Men in North Carolina
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Outcome Assessment
2.3. Arsenic Assessment
2.4. Covariate Assessment
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Overall | Prostate Cancer Aggressiveness | ||
---|---|---|---|
Low Aggressive | Intermediate/High Aggressive | ||
n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | |
Race | |||
African-American | 463 (48.5) | 204 (41.7) | 259 (55.7) |
European-American | 491 (51.5) | 285 (58.3) | 206 (44.3) |
Age at diagnosis, years | |||
<55 | 197 (20.6) | 110 (22.5) | 87 (18.7) |
55–75 | 699 (73.3) | 360 (73.6) | 339 (72.9) |
>75 | 58 (6.1) | 19 (3.9) | 39 (8.4) |
Education | |||
<High school | 162 (17.0) | 65 (13.3) | 97 (20.9) |
High school graduate | 238 (25.0) | 126 (25.8) | 112 (24.1) |
Vocational, technical, some college | 222 (23.3) | 113 (23.1) | 109 (23.5) |
College graduate | 331 (34.7) | 185 (37.8) | 146 (31.5) |
Missing | 1 | 0 | 1 |
Marital status | |||
Unmarried | 234 (24.6) | 106 (21.7) | 128 (27.6) |
Married | 719 (75.4) | 383 (78.3) | 336 (72.4) |
Missing | 1 | 0 | 1 |
Smoking status | |||
Never smoker | 312 (32.8) | 177 (36.3) | 135 (29.1) |
Former smoker | 490 (51.5) | 244 (50.0) | 246 (53.0) |
Current smoker | 150 (15.8) | 67 (13.7) | 83 (17.9) |
Missing | 2 | 1 | 1 |
Body mass index, kg/m2 | |||
<25 | 173 (18.3) | 90 (18.5) | 83 (18.1) |
25–29.9 | 403 (42.6) | 217 (44.6) | 186 (40.5) |
30–39.9 | 328 (34.7) | 164 (33.7) | 164 (35.3) |
≥40 | 42 (4.4) | 16 (3.3) | 26 (5.7) |
Missing | 8 | 2 | 6 |
Residence | |||
Urban | 719 (75.4) | 376 (76.9) | 343 (73.8) |
Rural | 235 (24.6) | 113 (23.1) | 122 (26.2) |
Alcohol consumption (g) | |||
≤0.04 | 335 (35.1) | 172 (35.2) | 163 (35.1) |
0.05–7.09 | 299 (31.3) | 148 (30.3) | 151 (32.5) |
≥7.10 | 320 (33.5) | 169 (34.6) | 151 (32.5) |
Seafood consumption (oz) | |||
≤0.29 | 323 (33.9) | 166 (33.9) | 157 (33.8) |
0.30–0.68 | 315 (33.0) | 161 (32.9) | 154 (33.1) |
>0.68 | 316 (33.1) | 162 (33.1) | 154 (33.1) |
Receipt of androgen deprivation therapy or radiotherapy prior to urine sample collection | |||
No | 765 (80.2) | 448 (91.6) | 317 (68.2) |
Yes | 189 (19.8) | 41 (8.4) | 148 (31.8) |
Arsenical Species, ppb a | Median, ppb | Intermediate/High vs.Low Aggressive | Age-Adjusted | Multivariable-Adjusted | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR (95% CI) b | PTrendc | OR (95% CI) d | PTrendc | |||
Total As | ||||||
≤2.83 | 1.56 | 140/156 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
2.83–6.02 | 6.01 | 135/161 | 0.93 (0.67–1.29) | 1.02 (0.72–1.44) | ||
≥6.03 | 10.01 | 155/143 | 1.23 (0.89–1.70) | 1.26 (0.89–1.80) | ||
Ln(Total As) | 1.01 (0.90–0.13) | 0.85 | 1.00 (0.88–1.13) | 0.96 | ||
ΣiAs e | ||||||
<2.82 | 1.71 | 159/158 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
2.82–5.71 | 3.97 | 145/170 | 0.85 (0.62–1.17) | 0.89 (0.64–1.25) | ||
≥5.72 | 9.19 | 159/159 | 1.02 (0.75–1.40) | 0.97 (0.69–1.37) | ||
Ln(ΣAs) | 1.03 (0.92–1.17) | 0.59 | 1.03 (0.90–1.17) | 0.72 | ||
iAs f | ||||||
<LOD | <LOD | 289/277 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
≥LOD–0.922 | 0.619 | 84/107 | 0.76 (0.54–1.06) | 0.76 (0.54–1.09) | ||
≥0.923 | 1.74 | 90/103 | 0.86 (0.62–1.19) | 0.84 (0.59–1.19) | ||
Ln(iAs) | 0.96 (0.84–1.11) | 0.59 | 0.97 (0.84–1.12) | 0.67 | ||
DMA | ||||||
<2.34 | 1.41 | 150/167 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
2.34–4.73 | 3.30 | 155/160 | 1.08 (0.79–1.48) | 1.16 (0.83–1.63) | ||
≥2.74 | 7.59 | 158/160 | 1.12 (0.82–1.53) | 1.09 (0.77–1.55) | ||
Ln(DMA) | 1.06 (0.92–1.21) | 0.42 | 1.04 (0.89–1.21) | 0.65 | ||
MMA | ||||||
<LOD | <LOD | 360/346 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
≥LOD–0.759 | 0.566 | 52/70 | 0.74 (0.50–1.09) | 0.85 (0.56–1.28) | ||
≥7.60 | 1.05 | 51/71 | 0.73 (0.49–1.08) | 0.82 (0.54–1.24) | ||
Ln(MMA) | 0.80 (0.62–1.04) | 0.09 | 0.90 (0.68–1.18) | 0.44 |
Arsenical Species, ppb a | African-American (n = 463) | European-American (n = 491) | PInteractiond | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Median, ppb | Intermediate/High vs. Low Aggressive | OR (95% CI) b | PTrendc | Median, ppb | Intermediate/High vs. Low Aggressive | OR (95% CI) b | PTrendc | ||
Total As | 0.04 | ||||||||
≤2.83 | 1.59 | 79/61 | 1.00 | 1.47 | 61/95 | 1.00 | |||
2.83–6.02 | 4.37 | 79/57 | 1.16 (0.69–1.94) | 4.12 | 56/104 | 0.92 (0.56–1.50) | |||
≥6.03 | 10.16 | 85/75 | 0.94 (0.57–1.56) | 9.70 | 70/68 | 1.77 (1.05–2.98) | |||
Ln(Total As) | 0.95 (0.79–1.13) | 0.55 | 1.04 (0.86–1.25) | 0.68 | |||||
ΣAse | 0.89 | ||||||||
<2.82 | 1.61 | 85/65 | 1.00 | 1.81 | 74/93 | 1.00 | |||
2.82–5.71 | 3.95 | 78/64 | 0.99 (0.60–1.63) | 3.97 | 67/106 | 0.79 (0.49–1.26) | |||
≥5.72 | 9.29 | 95/74 | 1.00 (0.61–1.63) | 9.12 | 64/85 | 0.91 (0.55–1.52) | |||
Ln(ΣAs) | 1.03 (0.86–1.25) | 0.73 | 0.99 (0.81–1.21) | 0.93 | |||||
iAs f | 0.79 | ||||||||
<LOD | <LOD | 156/112 | 1.00 | <LOD | 133/165 | 1.00 | |||
≥LOD–0.922 | 0.593 | 46/49 | 0.74 (0.45–1.22) | 0.638 | 38/58 | 0.76 (0.46–1.26) | |||
≥0.923 | 1.70 | 56/42 | 0.90 (0.54–1.49) | 1.84 | 34/61 | 0.76 (0.46–1.25) | |||
Ln(iAs) | 1.05 (0.84–1.30) | 0.69 | 0.89 (0.72–1.10) | 0.27 | |||||
DMA | 0.71 | ||||||||
<2.34 | 1.38 | 79/68 | 1.00 | 1.50 | 71/99 | 1.00 | |||
2.34–4.73 | 3.38 | 87/59 | 1.34 (0.81–2.22) | 3.22 | 68/101 | 0.97 (0.60–1.55) | |||
≥2.74 | 7.67 | 92/76 | 1.11 (0.68–1.83) | 7.54 | 66/84 | 1.02 (0.61–1.70) | |||
Ln(DMA) | 1.02 (0.82–1.26) | 0.86 | 1.03 (0.82–1.30) | 0.80 | |||||
MMA | 0.64 | ||||||||
<LOD | <LOD | 207/146 | 1.00 | <LOD | 153/200 | 1.00 | |||
≥LOD–0.759 | 0.544 | 25/28 | 0.69 (0.37–1.28) | 0.574 | 27/42 | 0.97 (0.56–1.69) | |||
≥7.60 | 0.994 | 26/29 | 0.76 (0.41–1.42) | 1.13 | 25/42 | 0.89 (0.49–1.62) | |||
Ln(MMA) | 0.88 (0.58–1.34) | 0.55 | 0.91 (0.62–1.33) | 0.63 |
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Parada, H., Jr.; Wu, T.; Fry, R.C.; Farnan, L.; Smith, G.J.; Mohler, J.L.; Bensen, J.T. Understanding the Relationship between Environmental Arsenic and Prostate Cancer Aggressiveness among African-American and European-American Men in North Carolina. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 8364. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17228364
Parada H Jr., Wu T, Fry RC, Farnan L, Smith GJ, Mohler JL, Bensen JT. Understanding the Relationship between Environmental Arsenic and Prostate Cancer Aggressiveness among African-American and European-American Men in North Carolina. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(22):8364. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17228364
Chicago/Turabian StyleParada, Humberto, Jr., Tianying Wu, Rebecca C. Fry, Laura Farnan, Gary J. Smith, James L. Mohler, and Jeannette T. Bensen. 2020. "Understanding the Relationship between Environmental Arsenic and Prostate Cancer Aggressiveness among African-American and European-American Men in North Carolina" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 22: 8364. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17228364