Work Addiction, Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder, Burn-Out, and Global Burden of Disease: Implications from the ICD-11
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. OCPD/APD: The Most Prevalent and Understudied Personality Disorder
3. Current Status of Work Addiction Research and Its Relationship with OCPD/APD
4. OCPD/APD, Work Addiction, Burn-Out, and the Global Burden of Disease
5. Work-Related Risk Factors for Health Mostly Do Not Account for Self-Employment and Individual Vulnerabilities
6. The Mediating Role of Organization Level Factors
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
- World Health Organization. Burn-Out an “Occupational Phenomenon”: International Classification of Diseases; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2019; Available online: https://wwwwhoint/mental_health/evidence/burn-out/en/ (accessed on 2 June 2019).
- Aronsson, G.; Theorell, T.; Grape, T.; Hammarström, A.; Hogstedt, C.; Marteinsdottir, I.; Skoog, I.; Träskman-Bendz, L.; Hall, C. A systematic review including meta-analysis of work environment and burnout symptoms. BMC Public Health 2017, 17, 264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Imo, U.O. Burnout and psychiatric morbidity among doctors in the UK: A systematic literature review of prevalence and associated factors. BJPsych Bull. 2017, 41, 197–204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- West, C.P.; Dyrbye, L.N.; Erwin, P.J.; Shanafelt, T.D. Interventions to prevent and reduce physician burnout: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 2016, 388, 2272–2281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- World Health Organization. Mental Health in the Workplace; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2019; Available online: https://wwwwhoint/mental_health/in_the_workplace/en/ (accessed on 2 June 2019).
- Virtanen, M.; Heikkilä, K.; Jokela, M.; Ferrie, J.E.; Batty, G.D.; Vahtera, J.; Kivimäki, M. Long working hours and coronary heart disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2012, 176, 586–596. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Cohen, S.; Janicki-Deverts, D.; Miller, G.E. Psychological stress and disease. JAMA 2007, 298, 1685–1687. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bannai, A.; Tamakoshi, A. The association between long working hours and health: A systematic review of epidemiological evidence. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 2014, 40, 5–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kivimäki, M.; Virtanen, M.; Kawachi, I.; Nyberg, S.T.; Alfredsson, L.; Batty, G.D.; Bjorner, J.B.; Borritz, M.; Brunner, E.J.; Burr, H.; et al. Long working hours, socioeconomic status, and the risk of incident type 2 diabetes: A meta-analysis of published and unpublished data from 222 120 individuals. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2015, 3, 27–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Virtanen, M.; Jokela, M.; Nyberg, S.T.; Madsen, I.E.; Lallukka, T.; Ahola, K.; Alfredsson, L.; Batty, G.D.; Bjorner, J.B.; Borritz, M.; et al. Long working hours and alcohol use: Systematic review and meta-analysis of published studies and unpublished individual participant data. BMJ 2015, 350, g7772. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Diedrich, A.; Voderholzer, U. Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder: A current review. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 2015, 17, 2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5®); American Psychiatric Publishing: Washington, DC, USA, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- De Reus, R.J.; Emmelkamp, P.M. Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder: A review of current empirical findings. Personal. Ment. Health 2012, 6, 1–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Starcevic, V.; Brakoulias, V. New diagnostic perspectives on obsessive-compulsive personality disorder and its links with other conditions. Curr. Opin. Psychiatry 2014, 27, 62–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Soeteman, D.I.; Roijen, L.H.; Verheul, R.; Busschbach, J.J. The economic burden of personality disorders in mental health care. J. Clin. Psychiatry 2008, 69, 259–265. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bender, D.S.; Dolan, R.T.; Skodol, A.E.; Sanislow, C.A.; Dyck, I.R.; McGlashan, T.H.; Shea, M.T.; Zanarini, M.C.; Oldham, J.M.; Gunderson, J.G. Treatment utilization by patients with personality disorders. Am. J. Psychiatry 2001, 158, 295–302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Rössler, W.; Hengartner, M.P.; Ajdacic-Gross, V.; Angst, J. Predictors of burnout: Results from a prospective community study. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 2015, 265, 19–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Andreassen, C.S.; Schaufeli, W.B.; Pallesen, S. Myths about “The myths about work addiction” Commentary on: Ten myths about work addiction (Griffiths et al., 2018). J. Behav. Addict. 2018, 7, 858–862. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Griffiths, M.D.; Demetrovics, Z.; Atroszko, P.A. Ten myths about work addiction. J. Behav. Addict. 2018, 7, 845–857. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sussman, S. Ten myths (or facts?) about workaholism: An appetitive motivation framework. Commentary on: Ten myths about work addiction (Griffiths et al., 2018). J. Behav. Addict. 2018, 7, 884–887. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kun, B. Ten myths and twenty years: What we know and what we still do not know about work addiction. Commentary on: Ten myths about work addiction (Griffiths et al., 2018). J. Behav. Addict. 2018, 7, 863–866. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Quinones, C. Moving from the terminology debate to a transdisciplinary understanding of the problem: Commentary on: Ten myths about work addiction (Griffiths et al., 2018). J. Behav. Addict. 2018, 7, 880–883. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lior, O.; Abira, R.; Weinstein, A. Work addiction: An organizational behavior as well as an addictive behavior? Commentary on: Ten myths about work addiction (Griffiths et al., 2018). J. Behav. Addict. 2018, 7, 888–891. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Malinowska, D. How to counter the ten myths about work addiction?: Three postulates for future research. Commentary on: Ten myths about work addiction (Griffiths et al., 2018). J. Behav. Addict. 2018, 7, 871–874. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tóth-Király, I.; Bőthe, B.; Orosz, G. Seeing the forest through different trees: A social psychological perspective of work addiction: Commentary on: Ten myths about work addiction (Griffiths et al., 2018). J. Behav. Addict. 2018, 7, 867–869. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Loscalzo, Y.; Giannini, M. Problematic overstudying: Studyholism or study addiction? Commentary on: Ten myths about work addiction (Griffiths et al., 2018). J. Behav. Addict. 2018, 7, 867–870. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Atroszko, P.A.; Demetrovics, Z.; Griffiths, M.D. Beyond the myths about work addiction: Toward a consensus on definition and trajectories for future studies on problematic overworking: A response to the commentaries on: Ten myths about work addiction (Griffiths et al., 2018). J. Behav. Addict. 2018, 8, 7–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Atroszko, P.A. Commentary on: The Bergen Study Addiction Scale: Psychometric properties of the Italian version. A pilot study. Theoretical and methodological issues in the research on study addiction with relevance to the debate on conceptualising behavioural addictions. Psychiatr. Psychol. Klin. 2018, 18, 276–282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Atroszko, P.A. Work addiction as a behavioural addiction: Towards a valid identification of problematic behaviour. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry 2019, 53, 284–285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Atroszko, P.A. Response to: Loscalzo and Giannini (2018) A boon of incoherence: Insights on the relationship between study/work addiction and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder. Psychiatr. Psychol. Klin. 2019, 19, 237–243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Andreassen, C.S.; Griffiths, M.D.; Sinha, R.; Hetland, J.; Pallesen, S. The relationships between workaholism and symptoms of psychiatric disorders: A large-scale cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE 2016, 11, e0152978. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Atroszko, P.A.; Pallesen, S.; Griffiths, M.D.; Andreassen, C.S. Work addiction in Poland: Adaptation of the Bergen Work Addiction Scale and relationship with psychopathology. Health Psychol. Rep. 2017, 5, 345–355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Robinson, B.E. Chained to the Desk: A Guidebook for Workaholics, Their Partners and Children, and the Clinicians Who Treat Them; NYU Press: New York, NY, USA, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Raiskila, T.; Sequeiros, S.B.; Kiuttu, J.; Kauhanen, M.L.; Läksy, K.; Rissanen, P.; Vainiemi, K.; Tuulio-Henriksson, A.; Veijola, J.; Joukamaa, M. Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder is common among occupational health care clients with depression. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 2013, 55, 168–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- European Agency for Safety and Health at Work. Calculating the Cost of Work-Related Stress and Psychosocial Risks. European Risk Observatory Literature Review; European Agency for Safety and Health at Work: Luxembourg, 2014. Available online: https://osha.europa.eu/pl/tools-and-publications/publications/literature_reviews/calculating-the-cost-of-work-related-stress-and-psychosocial-risks (accessed on 2 June 2019).
- International Monetary Fund. World Economic Outlook Database 2017; International Monetary Fund: Washington, DC, USA, 2017; Available online: https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2017/02/weodata/WEOOct2017all.xls (accessed on 2 June 2019).
- Vos, T.; Allen, C.; Arora, M.; Barber, R.M.; Bhutta, Z.A.; Brown, A.; Carter, A.; Casey, D.C.; Charlson, F.J.; Chen, A.Z.; et al. Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990–2015: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015. Lancet 2016, 388, 1545–1602. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Melamed, S.; Shirom, A.; Toker, S.; Berliner, S.; Shapira, I. Burnout and risk of cardiovascular disease: Evidence, possible causal paths, and promising research directions. Psychol. Bull. 2006, 132, 327–353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hare, D.L.; Toukhsati, S.R.; Johansson, P.; Jaarsma, T. Depression and cardiovascular disease: A clinical review. Eur. Heart J. 2013, 35, 1365–1372. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Lichtman, J.H.; Froelicher, E.S.; Blumenthal, J.A.; Carney, R.M.; Doering, L.V.; Frasure-Smith, N.; Freedland, K.E.; Jaffe, A.S.; Leifheit-Limson, E.C.; Sheps, D.S.; et al. Depression as a risk factor for poor prognosis among patients with acute coronary syndrome: Systematic review and recommendations: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2014, 129, 1350–1369. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bianchi, R.; Schonfeld, I.S.; Laurent, E. Burnout–depression overlap: A review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 2015, 36, 28–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Atroszko, P.A. Is a high workload an unaccounted confounding factor in the relationship between heavy coffee consumption and cardiovascular disease risk? Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2019, 10, 1257–1258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ahola, K.; Honkonen, T.; Pirkola, S.; Isometsä, E.; Kalimo, R.; Nykyri, E.; Aromaa, A.; Lönnqvist, J. Alcohol dependence in relation to burnout among the Finnish working population. Addiction 2006, 101, 1438–1443. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jackson, E.R.; Shanafelt, T.D.; Hasan, O.; Satele, D.V.; Dyrbye, L.N. Burnout and alcohol abuse/dependence among US medical students. Acad. Med. 2016, 91, 1251–1256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kivimäki, M.; Jokela, M.; Nyberg, S.T.; Singh-Manoux, A.; Fransson, E.I.; Alfredsson, L.; Bjorner, J.B.; Borritz, M.; Burr, H.; Casini, A.; et al. Long working hours and risk of coronary heart disease and stroke: A systematic review and meta-analysis of published and unpublished data for 603,838 individuals. Lancet 2015, 386, 1739–1746. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van der Hulst, M. Long Workhours and Health. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 2003, 29, 171–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Toker, S.; Melamed, S.; Berliner, S.; Zeltser, D.; Shapira, I. Burnout and risk of coronary heart disease: A prospective study of 8838 employees. Psychosom. Med. 2012, 74, 840–847. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Prince, M.; Patel, V.; Saxena, S.; Maj, M.; Maselko, J.; Phillips, M.R.; Rahman, A. No health without mental health. Lancet 2007, 370, 859–877. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eurostat. Self-Employed Persons; Eurostat: Luxembourg, 2019. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/-/EDN-20190430-1 (accessed on 2 June 2019).
- Mike, A.; King, H.; Oltmanns, T.F.; Jackson, J.J. Obsessive, compulsive, and conscientious? The relationship between OCPD and personality traits. J. Personal. 2018, 86, 952–972. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Egan, S.J.; Wade, T.D.; Shafran, R. Perfectionism as a transdiagnostic process: A clinical review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 2011, 31, 203–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krueger, R.F.; Eaton, N.R. Transdiagnostic factors of mental disorders. World Psychiatry 2015, 14, 27–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Fusar-Poli, P.; Solmi, M.; Brondino, N.; Davies, C.; Chae, C.; Politi, P.; Borgwardt, S.; Lawrie, S.M.; Parnas, J.; McGuire, P. Transdiagnostic psychiatry: A systematic review. World Psychiatry 2019, 18, 192–207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Van den Berg, S.M.; de Moor, M.H.; Verweij, K.J.; Krueger, R.F.; Luciano, M.; Arias Vasquez, A.; Matteson, L.K.; Derringer, J.; Esko, T.; Amin, N.; et al. Meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies for extraversion: Findings from the genetics of personality consortium. Behav. Genet. 2016, 46, 170–182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hill, A.P.; Curran, T. Multidimensional perfectionism and burnout: A meta-analysis. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 2016, 20, 269–288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tawfik, D.S.; Profit, J.; Morgenthaler, T.I.; Satele, D.V.; Sinsky, C.A.; Dyrbye, L.N.; Tutty, M.A.; West, C.P.; Shanafelt, T.D. Physician burnout, well-being, and work unit safety grades in relationship to reported medical errors. Mayo Clin. Proc. 2018, 93, 1571–1580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Annink, A.; Den Dulk, L.; Steijn, B. Work–family conflict among employees and the self-employed across Europe. Soc. Indic. Res. 2016, 126, 571–593. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Moskalewicz, J.; Badora, B.; Feliksiak, M.; Głowacki, A.; Gwiazda, M.; Herrmann, M.; Kawalec, I.; Roguska, B. Oszacowanie Rozpowszechnienia oraz Identyfikacja Czynników Ryzyka i Czynników Chroniących Hazardu i Innych Uzależnień Behawioralnych–Edycja 2018/2019; Polish Ministry of Health: Warszawa, Poland, 2019.
- Goldstein, R.Z.; Bechara, A.; Garavan, H.; Childress, A.R.; Paulus, M.P.; Volkow, N.D. The neurocircuitry of impaired insight in drug addiction. Trends Cogn. Sci. 2009, 13, 372–380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Schaef, A.W.; Fassel, D. The Addictive Organization; Harper & Row Publishers: New York, NY, USA, 1988. [Google Scholar]
- Johnstone, A.; Johnston, L. The relationship between organizational climate, occupational type, and workaholism. N. Z. J. Psychol. 2005, 34, 181–188. [Google Scholar]
- Burke, R.J. Workaholism in organizations: The role of organizational values. Pers. Rev. 2001, 30, 637–645. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Andreassen, C.S.; Bakker, A.B.; Bjorvatn, B.; Moen, B.E.; Magerøy, N.; Shimazu, A.; Hetland, J.; Pallesen, S. Working conditions and individual differences are weakly associated with workaholism: A 2–3-year prospective study of shift-working nurses. Front. Psychol. 2017, 8, 2045. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Mazzetti, G.; Schaufeli, W.B.; Guglielmi, D. Are workaholics born or made? Relations of workaholism with person characteristics and overwork climate. Int. J. Stress Manag. 2014, 21, 227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Avanzi, L.; van Dick, R.; Fraccaroli, F.; Sarchielli, G. The downside of organizational identification: Relations between identification, workaholism and well-being. Work Stress 2012, 26, 289–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Andreassen, C.S.; Pallesen, S.; Torsheim, T. Workaholism as a mediator between work-related stressors and health outcomes. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Balducci, C.; Avanzi, L.; Consiglio, C.; Fraccaroli, F.; Schaufeli, W. A cross-national study on the psychometric quality of the Italian version of the Dutch Work Addiction Scale (DUWAS). Eur. J. Psychol. Assess. 2015, 33, 422–428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schulz-Dadaczynski, A.; Wendsche, J.; Lohmann-Haislah, A.; Stab, N. Drivers of working longer: Results from a large-scale and representative German employee survey. J. Manag. Organ. 2019, 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Balducci, C.; Avanzi, L.; Fraccaroli, F. The individual “costs” of workaholism: An analysis based on multisource and prospective data. J. Manag. 2018, 44, 2961–2986. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Molino, M.; Bakker, A.B.; Ghislieri, C. The role of workaholism in the job demands-resources model. Anxiety Stress Coping 2016, 29, 400–414. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guglielmi, D.; Simbula, S.; Schaufeli, W.B.; Depolo, M. Self-efficacy and workaholism as initiators of the job demands-resources model. Career Dev. Int. 2012, 17, 375–389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sussman, S. Workaholism: A review. J. Addict. Res. Ther. 2012, 4120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Clark, M.A.; Michel, J.S.; Zhdanova, L.; Pui, S.Y.; Baltes, B.B. All work and no play? A meta-analytic examination of the correlates and outcomes of workaholism. J. Manag. 2016, 42, 1836–1873. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ogólnopolski Związek Zawodowy Lekarzy. Oświadczenie OZZL w Sprawie Kolejnych Przypadków Śmierci Lekarzy na Dyżurach; Ogólnopolski Związek Zawodowy Lekarzy: Bydgoszcz, Poland, 2017; Available online: http://www.ozzl.org.pl/index.php/13720-oswiadczenie-ozzl-w-sprawie-kolejnych-przypadkow-smierci-lekarzy-na-dyzurach (accessed on 2 June 2019).
- Rose, G. Sick individuals and sick populations. Int. J. Epidemiol. 2001, 30, 427–432. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tsui, A.H.H. Asian wellness in decline: A cost of rising prosperity. Int. J. Workplace Health Manag. 2008, 1, 123–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Balducci, C.; Cecchin, M.; Fraccaroli, F.; Schaufeli, W.B. Exploring the relationship between workaholism and workplace aggressive behaviour: The role of job-related emotion. Personal. Individ. Differ. 2012, 53, 629–634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Atroszko, P.A.; Demetrovics, Z.; Griffiths, M.D. Work Addiction, Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder, Burn-Out, and Global Burden of Disease: Implications from the ICD-11. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 660. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17020660
Atroszko PA, Demetrovics Z, Griffiths MD. Work Addiction, Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder, Burn-Out, and Global Burden of Disease: Implications from the ICD-11. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(2):660. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17020660
Chicago/Turabian StyleAtroszko, Paweł A., Zsolt Demetrovics, and Mark D. Griffiths. 2020. "Work Addiction, Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder, Burn-Out, and Global Burden of Disease: Implications from the ICD-11" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 2: 660. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17020660