Are There Seasonal Variations in Faecal Contamination of Exposure Pathways? An Assessment in a Low–Income Settlement in Uganda
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Location
2.2. Data Collection
2.3. Risk Analysis
2.4. Statistical Methods
2.5. Ethical Approval
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Household, Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Characteristics
3.2. Environmental Contamination
3.2.1. Open Drains
3.2.2. Soil
3.2.3. Compound Latrines
3.2.4. Raw Produce
3.2.5. Bathing Water (Spring Water)
3.2.6. Drinking Water
3.2.7. Street Food
3.3. Behaviour Frequency
3.3.1. Bathing Water
3.3.2. Drinking Water
3.3.3. Street Food
3.3.4. Open Drains
3.3.5. Raw Produce
3.3.6. Public Latrines
3.3.7. Surface Water
3.3.8. Seasonal Variation in Behavior
3.4. Risk Profiles and People Plots
3.5. Most Dominant Pathways
3.5.1. Flood Water
3.5.2. Open Drains
3.5.3. Street Food
3.6. Recommendations
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sample Type | No Dilution | Dilution 1 | Dilution 2 | Dilution 3 | Dilution 4 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Drinking Water (Municipal Water) | ✔ | - | - | - | - |
Bathing Water (Spring Water) | ✔ | - | - | - | - |
Drain Water | - | 1:10 | 1:100 | 1:1000 | 1:10,000 |
Produce | - | 1:10 | - | - | - |
Street Food | - | 1:10 | - | - | - |
Latrine Swabs | - | 1:10 | - | - | - |
Soil | - | 1:10 | 1:100 | - | - |
E. coli Geometric Mean | WSR | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pathway | Unit | Rainy [22] | SD | Dry | SD | p-Value |
Open Drains | Log10CFU/100 mL | 6.52 (n = 7) | 0.17 | 6.80 (n = 10) | 0.38 | 0.010 |
Soil | Log10CFU/g | 3.79 (n = 6) | 0.27 | 3.65 (n = 10) | 0.36 | 0.419 |
Produce | Log10CFU/g | 3.26 (n = 7) | 0.93 | 2.38 (n = 10) | 0.03 | 0.371 |
Bathing Water(Spring Water) | Log10CFU/100 mL | 2.81 (n = 9) | 0.20 | 2.84 (n = 10) | 0.39 | 0.100 |
Street Food | Log10CFU/g | 2.57 (n = 6) | 0.00 | 3.55 (n = 10) | 0.49 | 0.002 |
Drinking Water(Municipal Water) | Log10CFU/100 mL | TFTC * (n = 10) | - | TFTC * (n = 10) | - | - |
Rainy Season [22] | Dry Season | MW-U | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Adults% | Children% | Adults% | Children% | |||
Pathway | Frequency of Exposure | % | % | % | % | p-Value |
Surface Water | More than 10 times in the past month | 8 | 4 | 2 | 12 | adults p = 0.002 |
6–10 times in the past month | 4 | 2 | 2 | 5 | children p = 0.016 | |
5 times or less in the past month | 7 | 6 | 12 | 14 | - | |
Never | 80 | 86 | 82 | 68 | - | |
Do not know | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | - | |
Open Drains | More than 10 times in the past month | 36 | 25 | 32 | 43 | adults p = 0.075 |
6–10 times in the past month | 36 | 8 | 7 | 10 | children p = 0.001 | |
5 times or less in the past month | 12 | 20 | 10 | 15 | - | |
Never | 44 | 39 | 43 | 32 | - | |
Do not know | 0 | 8 | 1 | 0 | - | |
Drinking Water * | Every day | 61 | 60 | 72 | 76 | adults p = 0.109 |
4–6 days within the past week | 3 | 8 | 9 | 12 | children p = 0.074 | |
3 days or less within the past week | 5 | 9 | 5 | 1 | - | |
Never | 29 | 22 | 12 | 11 | - | |
Do not know | 2 | 1 | 2 | 0 | - | |
Bathing Water (Spring Water) | More than 10 times in the past week | 91 | 70 | 93 | 71 | adults p = 0.236 |
6–10 times in the past week | 7 | 28 | 4 | 26 | children p = 0.865 | |
5 times or less in the past week | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | - | |
Never within the past week | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | - | |
Do not know | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | - | |
Raw Produce | More than 10 times in the past week | 10 | 8 | 13 | 15 | adults p = 0.040 |
6–10 times in the past week | 13 | 10 | 20 | 23 | children p = 0.001 | |
5 times or less in the past week | 38 | 39 | 28 | 26 | - | |
Never within the past week | 34 | 41 | 34 | 35 | - | |
Do not know | 5 | 2 | 5 | 1 | - | |
Street Food | More than 10 times in the past week | 21 | 39 | 48 | 66 | adults p = 0.000 |
6–10 times in the past week | 37 | 34 | 13 | 11 | children p = 0.000 | |
5 times or less in the past week | 29 | 21 | 15 | 18 | - | |
Never within the past week | 11 | 5 | 18 | 4 | - | |
Do not know | 2 | 1 | 6 | 1 | - | |
Public Latrines | More than 10 times in the past week | 21 | 34 | 24 | 22 | adults p = 0.006 |
6–10 times in the past week | 19 | 15 | 3 | 2 | children p = 0.000 | |
5 times or less in the past week | 10 | 8 | 6 | 8 | - | |
Never within the past week | 48 | 33 | 62 | 67 | - | |
Do not know | 2 | 10 | 5 | 1 | - |
Food type | Ingredients | Cooking Method | Serving |
---|---|---|---|
Rolex | Eggs, chapati, onions, cabbage and tomatoes | The chapati is usually prepared in advance, it is a flat bread made from wheat flour fried on a pan. The onions, tomatoes, and cabbage are mixed with one egg and fried to make an omelette. The omelette is then wrapped in the chapati | Chopped on a board and served by hands. Usually put in a polythene bag |
Samosa | Wheat flour, rice and minced meat | The wheat flour is used to make a shell which is stuffed with either minced meat or rice and then deep fried | Packaged into a polythene bag by hands |
Kikomando | Chapati and beans | Boiled beans served with a chapati | Beans served with a spoon in plate, and chapati is first chopped and served by hand. |
Rainy Season [22] | Dry Season | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Adults | Children | Adults | Children | |||||||||
Pathway | Exposure | Dose (Log10 CFU/month) | E (Risk) | Exposure | Dose (Log10 CFU/month) | E (Risk) | Exposure | Dose (Log10 CFU/month) | E (Risk) | Exposure | Dose (Log10 CFU/month) | E (Risk) |
Open Drains | 55% | 5.5 | 5.2 | 61% | 6.9 | 6.6 | 58.8% | 5.9 | 5.7 | 70.3% | 6.9 | 6.8 |
Street Food * | 93% | 6.2 * | 6.2 | 98% | 5.8 * | 5.8 | 83.9% | 6.9 | 6.8 | 96.6% | 6.5 | 6.4 |
Raw Produce | 67% | 5.6 | 5.4 | 60% | 5.4 | 5.2 | 66.9% | 3.4 | 3.2 | 69.6% | 3 | 2.8 |
Bathing Water ** | 100% | 4.4 ** | 4.4 | 100% | 5.2 ** | 5.2 | 100% | 5.5 ** | 5.5 | 100% | 5.5 ** | 5.5 |
Drinking Water ** | 73% | 2.1 ** | 1.9 | 78 | 1.7 ** | 1.5 | 90.7% | 2.4 ** | 2.3 | 91.1% | 2 ** | 1.9 |
Public/Shared Latrines ** | 53% ** | 0.3 | 0.0 | 64% ** | 0.6 | 0.4 | 32.3% ** | 0.5 | 0.0 | 32.9% ** | 0.4 | 0.0 |
Flood Water | 40% | 8.8 | 8.4 | 46% | 8.8 | 8.4 |
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Ronoh, P.; Furlong, C.; Kansiime, F.; Mugambe, R.; Brdjanovic, D. Are There Seasonal Variations in Faecal Contamination of Exposure Pathways? An Assessment in a Low–Income Settlement in Uganda. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 6355. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176355
Ronoh P, Furlong C, Kansiime F, Mugambe R, Brdjanovic D. Are There Seasonal Variations in Faecal Contamination of Exposure Pathways? An Assessment in a Low–Income Settlement in Uganda. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(17):6355. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176355
Chicago/Turabian StyleRonoh, Patrick, Claire Furlong, Frank Kansiime, Richard Mugambe, and Damir Brdjanovic. 2020. "Are There Seasonal Variations in Faecal Contamination of Exposure Pathways? An Assessment in a Low–Income Settlement in Uganda" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 17: 6355. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176355