Malaria Transmission around the Memve’ele Hydroelectric Dam in South Cameroon: A Combined Retrospective and Prospective Study, 2000–2016
Abstract
:1. Background
2. Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Study Sites
2.3. Mosquito Collection and Morphological Identification
2.4. Molecular Identification
2.5. Determination of Plasmodium Falciparum Infectivity
2.6. Statistical Analysis
- The Human Biting Rate (HBR) which represents the average number of bites received per person per night;
- The Infection Rate (IR) that measured the proportion of mosquitoes positive for P. falciparum Circumsporozoite antigene;
- The Entomological Inoculation Rate (EIR), which is the number of infective bites received per person per night; EIR is calculated as the product of the HBR and IR.
2.7. Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate
3. Results
3.1. Composition and Abundance of Anopheline Fauna in Nyabessan and Olama
3.2. Night Biting Rates and Biting Cycles of Malaria Vector Populations, Indoors and Outdoors in Nyabessan and Olama
3.2.1. Night Biting Rates Indoors and Outdoors
3.2.2. Indoor and Outdoor Biting Cycles
3.3. Infection Rates of Malaria Vectors in Nyabessan and Olama
3.4. Entomological Inoculation Rates of Malaria Vectors in Nyabessan and Olama
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Study Site | Species Distribution before Dam Construction | Species Distribution during Dam Construction | p-Value of 2-Sample Chi-Square Test for Equality of Proportions |
---|---|---|---|
2000–2006 | 2014–2016 | ||
Nyabessan | |||
Nb. pnc. | 53 | 56 | |
A. gambiae s.l. | 190 (5.1) | 358 (15.0) | <0.0001 |
A. moucheti | 1455 (38.9) | 817 (34.2) | 0.0002 |
A. ovengensis | 1992 (53.3) | 651 (27.2) | <0.0001 |
A. paludis | 4 (0.1) | 524 (21.9) | <0.0001 |
A. ziemanni | 0 | 11 (0.5) | 0.0001 |
A. marshallii | 97 (2.6) | 14 (0.6) | <0.0001 |
A. coustani | 0 | 13 (0.5) | <0.0001 |
A. obscurus | 0 | 1 (0.04) | 0.8214 |
Total | 3738 (100) | 2389 (100) | |
Olama | |||
Nb. pnc | 70 | 36 | |
A. gambiae s.l. | 45 (0.9) | 10 (1.1) | 0.6503 |
A. moucheti | 5037 (97.9) | 814 (89.0) | <0.0001 |
A. nili | 10 (0.2) | 1 (0.1) | 0.8925 |
A. paludis | 5 (0.1) | 4 (0.4) | 0.0460 |
A. ziemanni | 41 (0.8) | 83 (9.1) | <0.0001 |
A. marshallii | 9 (0.2) | 3 (0.3) | 0.5783 |
Total | 5147 (100) | 915 (100) |
Variable | Sum Sq | Df | F Value | Pr (>F) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Period | 807.14 | 1 | 65.99 | <0.0000 * |
Location | 29.12 | 1 | 2.38 | 0.1254 |
Species | 551.60 | 3 | 15.03 | <0.0000 * |
Position | 5.96 | 1 | 0.49 | 0.4864 |
Hour | 182.87 | 4 | 3.74 | 0.0066 * |
Period:Location | 11.02 | 1 | 0.90 | 0.3444 |
Period:Species | 306.99 | 2 | 12.55 | <0.0000 * |
Period:Position | 77.74 | 1 | 6.36 | 0.0130 * |
Location:Position | 18.66 | 1 | 1.53 | 0.2191 |
Species:Position | 103.11 | 3 | 2.81 | 0.0422 * |
Period:Hour | 36.34 | 4 | 0.74 | 0.5645 |
Location:Hour | 121.40 | 4 | 2.48 | 0.0472 * |
Species:Hour | 197.81 | 12 | 1.35 | 0.2003 |
Position:Hour | 57.92 | 4 | 1.18 | 0.3212 |
Period:Location:Position | 47.27 | 1 | 3.86 | 0.0515 |
Period:Species:Position | 12.06 | 2 | 0.49 | 0.6119 |
Period:Location:Hour | 101.69 | 4 | 2.08 | 0.0875 |
Period:Species:Hour | 107.66 | 8 | 1.10 | 0.3675 |
Period:Position:Hour | 54.23 | 4 | 1.11 | 0.3556 |
Location:Position:Hour | 20.33 | 4 | 0.42 | 0.7972 |
Species:Position:Hour | 97.86 | 12 | 0.67 | 0.7803 |
Period:Location:Position:Hour | 12.25 | 4 | 0.25 | 0.9090 |
Period:Species:Position:Hour | 42.31 | 8 | 0.43 | 0.8997 |
Factor | Estimate | Std. Error | t Value | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Intercept | 2.5602 | 0.9717 | 2.635 | 0.0091 * |
Hour (ref = 07–09 p.m.) | ||||
09–11 p.m. | 1.5566 | 0.9024 | 1.725 | 0.0860. |
11 p.m.–01 a.m. | 2.7241 | 0.9024 | 3.019 | 0.0029 * |
01–03 a.m. | 2.2428 | 0.9024 | 2.485 | 0.0137 * |
03–05 a.m. | 1.4813 | 0.9024 | 1.642 | 0.1022 |
Species (ref = A. gambae s.l.) | ||||
A. moucheti | 5.4189 | 0.7578 | 7.151 | <0.0001 * |
A. ovengensis | 2.9990 | 0.8821 | 3.400 | 0.0008 * |
A. paludis | 3.0243 | 1.0094 | 2.996 | 0.0031 * |
A. marshallii | −2.682 | 7.699 | −0.348 | 0.7289 |
Variable | Sum Sq | Df | F Value | Pr (>F) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Period | 17.48 | 1 | 1.9789 | 0.16785 |
Species | 114.85 | 6 | 2.1667 | 0.06856 |
Location | 2.46 | 1 | 0.2787 | 0.60073 |
Period:Species | 37.20 | 6 | 0.7017 | 0.64996 |
Period:Location | 1.04 | 1 | 0.1177 | 0.73350 |
Species:Location | 4.66 | 4 | 0.1317 | 0.96978 |
Period:Species:Location | 12.05 | 3 | 0.4545 | 0.71569 |
Variable | Sum Sq | Df | F Value | Pr (>F) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Dam_Construction | 0.856 | 1 | 4.056 | 0.0636 |
Species | 2.484 | 5 | 2.355 | 0.0948 |
Location | 0.864 | 1 | 4.095 | 0.0625 |
Dam_Construction:Species | 0.079 | 2 | 0.188 | 0.8311 |
Dam_Construction:Location | 0.652 | 1 | 3.092 | 0.1005 |
Species:Location | 1.301 | 2 | 3.083 | 0.0777 |
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Share and Cite
Mbakop, L.R.; Awono-Ambene, P.H.; Mandeng, S.E.; Ekoko, W.E.; Fesuh, B.N.; Antonio-Nkondjio, C.; Toto, J.-C.; Nwane, P.; Fomena, A.; Etang, J. Malaria Transmission around the Memve’ele Hydroelectric Dam in South Cameroon: A Combined Retrospective and Prospective Study, 2000–2016. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1618. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16091618
Mbakop LR, Awono-Ambene PH, Mandeng SE, Ekoko WE, Fesuh BN, Antonio-Nkondjio C, Toto J-C, Nwane P, Fomena A, Etang J. Malaria Transmission around the Memve’ele Hydroelectric Dam in South Cameroon: A Combined Retrospective and Prospective Study, 2000–2016. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(9):1618. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16091618
Chicago/Turabian StyleMbakop, Lili R., Parfait H. Awono-Ambene, Stanislas E. Mandeng, Wolfgang E. Ekoko, Betrand N. Fesuh, Christophe Antonio-Nkondjio, Jean-Claude Toto, Philippe Nwane, Abraham Fomena, and Josiane Etang. 2019. "Malaria Transmission around the Memve’ele Hydroelectric Dam in South Cameroon: A Combined Retrospective and Prospective Study, 2000–2016" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 9: 1618. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16091618