Sources and Characteristics of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Ambient Total Suspended Particles in Ulaanbaatar City, Mongolia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sampling Conditions and Study Area
2.2. Sampling Design and Analysis
2.2.1. Sampling Methods
2.2.2. Sample Pretreatments
2.2.3. Analysis by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
2.3. Data Analysis
2.3.1. PAH Source Identification
2.3.2. Health Risk Assessment
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Meteorological Condtions and Seasonal Variation
3.2. Characteristics of Atmospheric PAHs Concentrations in Ulaanbaatar City
3.3. Composition and Primary PAH Sources
3.4. Health Risk Assessment
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameters | Sample Code | Sampling Station Name and Types | Station Coordinates | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) | PAH1 | City center | 47°55′21.8″ N | 106°55′13.5″ E |
PAH2 | Ger area | 47°58′1.2″ N | 106°54′28.8″ E | |
PAH3 | Residential area | 47°54′51.9″ N | 106°49′37.3″ E | |
PAH4 | Industrial area | 47°55′34.6″ N | 106°58′18.7″ E | |
PAH5 | Townhouse area | 47°53′2.5″ N | 106°53′49.9″ E | |
Particulate matter | PM1 | Amgalan (industrial area) | 47°54′19.1″ N | 106°59′32.8″ E |
PM2 | 13th district (city center area) | 47°54′14.2″ N | 106°55′59.1″ E | |
PM3 | Baruun 4 zam (city center area) | 47°54′19.0″ N | 106°53′16.7″ E | |
PM4 | MNB (ger area) | 47°55′6.5″ N | 106°52′56.2″ E | |
PM5 | Mon laa (ger area) | 47°56′48.9″ N | 106°48′57.5″E | |
PM6 | 65th school (residential area) | 47°54′33.3″ N | 106°47′20.3″ E | |
PM7 | Eco khotkhon (apartment) | 47°51′10.0″ N | 106°46′0.2″ E | |
Meteorological Parameters | MP1 | Ulaanbaatar station | 47 55′8.6″ N | 106 50′51.9″ E |
MP2 | Buyant Ukhaa station | 47 50′29.4″ N | 106 45′52.9″ E | |
MP3 | Amgalan station | 47 54′40.0″ N | 106 59′5.0″ E |
Sampling Sites | Day, Month, Year | Temperature, °C | Wind Speed, m·s−1 | Wind Direction | Relative Humidity, % | Precipitation, mm | Pressure, hPa | PM2.5 Concentration, µg·m−3 | PAH Concentration, ng·m−3 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Max | Min | Mean | Max | mean | Direction | Angle | |||||||
City center | 17, 01, 2017 | −21.2 | −28 | −24.9 | 5 | 0.8 | - | 0 | 73 | 0.3 | 872.9 | 172 a | 161.6 |
Ger area | 21, 01, 2017 | −16.9 | −27.1 | −23.1 | 4 | 0.9 | - | 0 | 74 | 0 | 875.9 | 252 b | 773.0 |
Residential area | 22, 01, 2017 | −16.8 | −27.4 | −22.6 | 6 | 1 | EEN | 84 | 67 | 0 | 874.7 | 235 c | 412.3 |
Industrial area | 24, 01, 2017 | −8.9 | −21.5 | −16.3 | 6 | 1.9 | EES | 113 | 65 | 0 | 873.1 | 68 d | 131.0 |
City center | 15, 03, 2017 | 4.6 | −9.8 | −3.2 | 7 | 1.4 | E | 101 | 45 | 0 | 871.9 | 54.5 a | 22.2 |
Ger area | 16, 03, 2017 | 6.4 | −7 | −0.7 | 7 | 1.3 | EES | 113 | 36 | 0 | 866.5 | 87 b | 530.6 |
Residential area | 19, 03, 2017 | 0.9 | −11.9 | −5.8 | 9 | 1.5 | - | 0 | 53 | 0 | 876.7 | 27 c | 247.5 |
Industrial area | 20, 03, 2017 | 4.6 | −10.7 | −3.8 | 8 | 1.4 | - | 0 | 42 | 0 | 876.3 | 22 d | 191.4 |
City center | 12, 09, 2017 | 23 | 6 | 14 | 7 | 2 | ES | 135 | 50 | 0 | 871.0 | 19 a | 2.2 |
Ger area | 14, 09, 2017 | 21.7 | 12 | 16.5 | 14 | 3.5 | NEN | 17 | 44 | 0 | 868.6 | 20 b | 14.4 |
Residential area | 19, 09, 2017 | 21.2 | 1.5 | 10.9 | 9 | 1.6 | SWS | 208 | 48 | 0 | 869.2 | 57 c | 53.1 |
Industrial area | 21, 09, 2017 | 17.5 | 1.4 | 6.2 | 13 | 4.1 | W | 343 | 72 | 0 | 856.4 | 13 d | 7.8 |
Town house | 23, 09, 2017 | 12.1 | 5.9 | 7.3 | 11 | 1.9 | W | 343 | 74 | 0 | 860.2 | 8 e | 1.4 |
PAHs Species | Abbreviation | Chemical Formula | MW, g/mol | Rings | MW Groups | IUR, (µg m−3)−1 ᵃ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Naphthalene | Nap | C10H8 | 128.2 | 2 | LMW | 3.4 × 10−5 |
Acenaphthene | Ace | C12H10 | 154.2 | 3 | LMW | 1.1 × 10−6 |
Fluorene | Fle | C13H10 | 166.2 | 3 | LMW | 1.1 × 10−6 |
Phenanthrene | Phe | C14H10 | 178.2 | 3 | LMW | 1.1 × 10−6 |
Anthracene | Ant | C14H10 | 178.2 | 3 | LMW | 1.1 × 10−5 |
Fluoranthene | Flu | C16H10 | 202.3 | 4 | MMW | 1.1 × 10−6 |
Pyrene | Pyr | C16H10 | 202.3 | 4 | MMW | 1.1 × 10−6 |
Benz[a]anthracene | BaA | C18H12 | 228.3 | 4 | MMW | 1.1 × 10−4 |
Chrysene | Chr | C18H12 | 228.3 | 4 | MMW | 1.1 × 10−5 |
Benzo[b]fluoranthene | BbF | C20H12 | 252.3 | 5 | HMW | 1.1 × 10−4 |
Benzo[k]fluoranthene | BkF | C20H12 | 252.3 | 5 | HMW | 1.1 × 10−4 |
Benzo[a]pyrene | BaP | C20H12 | 252.3 | 5 | HMW | 1.1 × 10−3 |
Dibenz[a,h]anthracene | DBA | C22H14 | 278.4 | 5 | HMW | 1.2 × 10−3 |
Benzo[ghi]perylene | BPe | C22H12 | 276.3 | 6 | HMW | 1.1 × 10−5 |
Indeno[1,2,3-cd] pyrene | IDP | C22H12 | 276.3 | 6 | HMW | 1.1 × 10−4 |
Sampling Sites | Sampling Period | PAHs Concentrations, ng·m−3 | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nap | Ace | Fle | Phe | Ant | Flu | Pyr | BaA | Chr | BbF | BkF | BaP | DBA | BPe | IDP | ΣPAHs | ||
City center | 17, 01, 2017 | 5.8 | 0.05 | 4.1 | 30.7 | 1.9 | 35.1 | 30.6 | 6 | 5.8 | 5.6 | 2.8 | 3.6 | 14.2 | 12.8 | 2.4 | 161.6 |
Ger area | 21, 01, 2017 | 5.3 | 1.8 | 134.9 | 175.5 | 42.6 | 143.5 | 106.1 | 30.3 | 18.7 | 26.2 | 9.9 | 22 | 0.5 | 44.8 | 11 | 773 |
Residential area | 22, 01, 2017 | 5.2 | 0.2 | 21.9 | 109.4 | 9.1 | 99.4 | 67.4 | 16.5 | 13.7 | 15.1 | 6.1 | 13.8 | 0.5 | 25.6 | 8.5 | 412.3 |
Industrial area | 24, 01, 2017 | 5.6 | 0.1 | 6.2 | 31.1 | 4.6 | 23.5 | 23.7 | 7.7 | 4 | 5.7 | 2 | 4.4 | 0 | 9.9 | 2.3 | 131 |
City center | 15, 03, 2017 | 3.2 | 0.04 | 0.4 | 11.6 | 0.1 | 1 | 1.2 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.8 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.1 | 1.4 | 0.7 | 22.2 |
Ger area | 16, 03, 2017 | 19.4 | 1.8 | 38.9 | 177.9 | 39.4 | 53.8 | 58.4 | 20.2 | 11 | 24.4 | 9.5 | 21.2 | 0.5 | 43.3 | 10.9 | 530.6 |
Residential area | 19, 03, 2017 | 17 | 0.1 | 20.5 | 47 | 9.8 | 46 | 47.2 | 17 | 8.7 | 8.2 | 2.8 | 6.2 | 0.3 | 14.2 | 2.6 | 247.5 |
Industrial area | 20, 03, 2017 | 13.4 | 2.3 | 104.2 | 17.5 | 1.3 | 10.8 | 12.3 | 2.4 | 1.2 | 6.4 | 1.3 | 3.5 | 0.3 | 14 | 0.4 | 191.4 |
City center | 12, 09, 2017 | 0.3 | 0.003 | 0.04 | 0.9 | 0.01 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.04 | 0.1 | 0.04 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 2.2 |
Ger area | 14, 09, 2017 | 0.6 | 0.02 | 0.5 | 1 | 0.02 | 2.5 | 0.3 | 1.2 | 1.1 | 1.6 | 0.7 | 1.4 | 0.02 | 2.5 | 0.9 | 14.4 |
Residential area | 19, 09, 2017 | 0.8 | 0.04 | 1.8 | 4 | 0.4 | 3 | 8.6 | 7.6 | 6.4 | 4.9 | 2 | 4.3 | 0.01 | 7.9 | 2.7 | 54.6 |
Industrial area | 21, 09, 2017 | 0.6 | 0.02 | 0.4 | 0.8 | 0.03 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.3 | 0.9 | 0.0003 | 1.3 | 0.8 | 7.8 |
Town house | 23, 09, 2017 | 0.4 | 0.001 | 0.03 | 0.6 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.1 | 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.1 | 0.001 | 0.1 | 0.002 | 1.4 |
IUR | 3.4 × 10−5 | 1.1 × 10−6 | 1.1 × 10−6 | 1.1 × 10−6 | 1.1 × 10−5 | 1.1 × 10−6 | 1.1 × 10−6 | 1.1 × 10−4 | 1.1 × 10−5 | 1.1 × 10−4 | 1.1 × 10−4 | 1.1 × 10−3 | 1.2 × 10−3 | 1.1 × 10−5 | 1.1 × 10−4 |
No. | City, Country | Type | Temperature, °C | Fraction | ΣPAHs Concentrations Range, ng·m−3 | Author(s) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Summer | Winter | Summer | Winter | |||||
1 | Tangshan, China | Industrial and Commercial | 27.3 | −2.7 | PM10 | 26.5–313.6 | 142.4–672.4 | Shi et al. (2009) [36] |
2 | Beijing, China | Commercial | 23.7 | 1.5 | PM2.5 | 1.8–21.2 | 20.7–141.3 | Wu et al. (2014) [39] |
3 | Seoul, South Korea | Commercial | 24.5 | −3.4 | PM10 | 5.8–7.2 | 23.4–28.8 | Kim et al. (2012) [37] |
4 | Kanazawa, Japan | Commercial | 25.1 | 3.7 | TSPs | 0.28–0.44 | 0.75–1.25 | Hayakawa et al. (2018) [16] |
5 | Tokyo, Japan | Commercial | 25.9 | 6.6 | TSPs | 0.12–0.24 | 0.95–1.45 | |
6 | Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia | Commercial and Industrial | 14 | −24.9 | TSPs | 1.4–53.1 | 131.0–773.0 | This study |
Parameters | ΣPAHs | PM2.5 | Temp | WS | RH | Pre | Press | 2-ring | 3-ring | 4-ring | 5-ring | 6-ring |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ΣPAHs | 1 | |||||||||||
PM2.5 | 0.85 | 1 | ||||||||||
Temp | −0.97 | −0.95 | 1 | |||||||||
WS | −0.98 | −0.74 | 0.91 | 1 | ||||||||
RH | 0.31 | 0.77 | −0.53 | −0.13 | 1 | |||||||
Pre | 0.76 | 0.99 | −0.90 | −0.63 | 0.85 | 1 | ||||||
Press | 0.98 | 0.72 | −0.90 | −1.00 | 0.10 | 0.61 | 1 | |||||
2-ring | 0.54 | 0.01 | −0.32 | −0.69 | −0.63 | −0.13 | 0.71 | 1 | ||||
3-ring | 0.98 | 0.74 | −0.91 | −1.00 | 0.14 | 0.64 | 1.00 | 0.68 | 1 | |||
4-ring | 0.97 | 0.95 | −1.00 | −0.91 | 0.53 | 0.90 | 0.90 | 0.32 | 0.91 | 1 | ||
5-ring | 1.00 | 0.87 | −0.98 | −0.97 | 0.36 | 0.80 | 0.97 | 0.50 | 0.97 | 0.98 | 1 | |
6-ring | 1.00 | 0.81 | −0.95 | −0.99 | 0.25 | 0.72 | 0.99 | 0.60 | 0.99 | 0.95 | 0.99 | 1 |
Diagnostic Ratio (DR) | Ant/(Ant+Phe) | Flu/(Flu+Pyr) | BaA/(BaA+Chr) |
---|---|---|---|
Petroleum | <0.1 [30] a | <0.4 [30] a | - |
Gasoline engine | - | 0.4–0.5 [30] a | 0.22–0.55 [42] b |
Diesel engine | - | >0.5 [43] c | 0.38–0.64 [42] b |
Coal combustion | 0.24 [15] d | 0.57 [15] a | 0.5–0.55 [15] e |
Wood combustion | - | - | 0.43 [44] f |
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Byambaa, B.; Yang, L.; Matsuki, A.; Nagato, E.G.; Gankhuyag, K.; Chuluunpurev, B.; Banzragch, L.; Chonokhuu, S.; Tang, N.; Hayakawa, K. Sources and Characteristics of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Ambient Total Suspended Particles in Ulaanbaatar City, Mongolia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 442. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16030442
Byambaa B, Yang L, Matsuki A, Nagato EG, Gankhuyag K, Chuluunpurev B, Banzragch L, Chonokhuu S, Tang N, Hayakawa K. Sources and Characteristics of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Ambient Total Suspended Particles in Ulaanbaatar City, Mongolia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(3):442. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16030442
Chicago/Turabian StyleByambaa, Batdelger, Lu Yang, Atsushi Matsuki, Edward G. Nagato, Khongor Gankhuyag, Byambatseren Chuluunpurev, Lkhagvajargal Banzragch, Sonomdagva Chonokhuu, Ning Tang, and Kazuichi Hayakawa. 2019. "Sources and Characteristics of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Ambient Total Suspended Particles in Ulaanbaatar City, Mongolia" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 3: 442. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16030442