The Role of Environmental Tax in Alleviating the Impact of Environmental Pollution on Residents’ Happiness in China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Policy Background
3. Methods
3.1. Data Resource
3.2. Model Specifications
3.3. Dependent Variables
3.4. Independent Variables
3.5. Moderator Variables
3.6. Control Variables
3.7. Chow Test
4. Results
4.1. Descriptive Analyses
4.2. Empirical Results
4.3. Moderating Effect Results
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Province | SO2 | COD | Province | SO2 | COD |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tianjin | 1.2 | 1.4 | Henan | 0.6 | 0.7 |
Shanghai | 1.2 | 1.4 | Hubei | 0.6 | 0.7 |
Beijing | 9.5 | 10 | Hunan | 0.6 | 0.7 |
Chongqing | 0.6 | 0.7 | Guangdong | 1.2 | 1.4 |
Hebei | 1.2 | 1.4 | Sichuan | 0.6 | 0.7 |
Shanxi | 0.6 | 0.7 | Guizhou | 1.2 | 1.4 |
Liaoning | 1.2 | 1.4 | Jiangxi | 0.6 | 0.7 |
Jilin | 0.6 | 0.7 | Yunnan | 0.6 | 0.7 |
Heilongjiang | 1.2 | 1.4 | Shaanxi | 0.6 | 0.7 |
Jiangsu | 1.2 | 1.4 | Gansu | 0.6 | 0.7 |
Zhejiang | 1.2 | 1.4 | Qinghai | 0.6 | 0.7 |
Anhui | 1.2 | 1.4 | Inner Mongolia | 1.2 | 1.4 |
Fujian | 0.6 | 0.7 | Guangxi | 1.2 | 1.4 |
Shandong | 1.2 | 1.4 | Ningxia | 1.2 | 1.4 |
Variables | Measures | Mean | Standard Deviation | Minimum | Maximum | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dependent variable | Happiness | The five levels of respondents’ self-reported happiness | 3.867 | 0.821 | 1 | 5 |
Independent variable | Air Pollution (PollutionA) | Industrial SO2 emissions | 60.295 | 33.095 | 4.035 | 140 |
Water Pollution (PollutionW) | Industrial COD emissions | 11.030 | 5.694 | 0.605 | 23.550 | |
Control variable | Gender | Male = 1; Female = 0 | 0.468 | 0.499 | 0 | 1 |
Age | The age of respondents | 49.402 | 16.895 | 17 | 93 | |
Age2 | The square of age | 2725.960 | 1708.599 | 289 | 8649 | |
Religion | Religion = 1; No religion = 0 | 0.109 | 0.312 | 0 | 1 | |
Marriage | Married = 1; Others = 0 | 0.890 | 0.313 | 0 | 1 | |
Health | The five levels of respondents’ health | 3.608 | 1.075 | 1 | 5 | |
Income | The five levels of respondents’ family income status | 2.652 | 0.717 | 1 | 5 | |
Moderator variable | Tax1 | Sewage charges (SO2) | 1.338 | 1.894 | 0.6 | 9.5 |
Tax2 | Sewage charges (COD) | 1.507 | 1.977 | 0.7 | 10 |
Dependent Variable | Happiness | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Independent Variable | PollutionA | PollutionW | |||||
Coefficient | 95% CI | p Value | Coefficient | 95% CI | p Value | ||
−0.059 | (−0.086, −0.031) | 0.000 | −0.089 | (−0.116, −0.063) | 0.000 | ||
Control Variable | Gender | −0.077 | (−0.120, −0.034) | 0.000 | −0.075 | (−0.118, 0.032) | 0.001 |
Age | −0.030 | (−0.038, −0.022) | 0.000 | −0.030 | (−0.038, −0.022) | 0.000 | |
Age2 | 0.000 | (0.000, 0.001) | 0.000 | 0.000 | (0.000, 0.001) | 0.000 | |
Religion | 0.139 | (0.071, 0.208) | 0.000 | 0.154 | (0.085, 0.223) | 0.000 | |
Marriage | 0.239 | (0.152, 0.325) | 0.000 | 0.249 | (0.163, 0.336) | 0.000 | |
Health | 0.237 | (0.215, 0.260) | 0.000 | 0.237 | (0.214, 0.259) | 0.000 | |
Finance | 0.416 | (0.385, 0.447) | 0.000 | 0.416 | (0.384, 0.447) | 0.000 | |
Number of Observation | 10752 | 10752 | |||||
Pseudo R2 | 0.065 | 0.066 | |||||
Log likelihood | −11,289.057 | −11,275.926 | |||||
Prob > chi2 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Dependent Variable | Happiness | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Independent Variable/Group | PollutionA | PollutionW | |||||||||||
Baseline-Tax Area | High-Tax Area | Baseline-Tax Area | High-Tax Area | ||||||||||
Coefficient | 95% CI | p Value | Coefficient | 95% CI | p Value | Coefficient | 95% CI | p Value | Coefficient | 95% CI | p Value | ||
−0.162 | (−0.239, −0.086) | 0.000 | −0.030 | (−0.060, 0.000) | 0.051 | −0.264 | (−0.353, −0.174) | 0.000 | −0.063 | (−0.091, −0.035) | 0.000 | ||
Control Variable | Gender | −0.106 | (−0.169, −0.042) | 0.001 | −0.056 | (−0.115, 0.002) | 0.059 | −0.105 | (−0.169, 0.042) | 0.001 | −0.055 | (−0.113, 0.004) | 0.067 |
Age | −0.030 | (−0.042, −0.017) | 0.000 | −0.029 | (−0.040, −0.018) | 0.000 | −0.029 | (−0.042, −0.017) | 0.000 | −0.030 | (−0.041, −0.019) | 0.000 | |
Age2 | 0.000 | (0.000, 0.001) | 0.000 | 0.000 | (0.000, 0.001) | 0.000 | 0.000 | (0.000, 0.001) | 0.000 | 0.000 | (0.000, 0.001) | 0.000 | |
Religion | 0.208 | (0.104, 0.312) | 0.000 | 0.069 | (−0.023, 0.161) | 0.140 | 0.229 | (0.126, 0.333) | 0.000 | 0.084 | (−0.008, 0.176) | 0.073 | |
Marriage | 0.142 | (0.003, 0.280) | 0.046 | 0.295 | (0.185, 0.405) | 0.000 | 0.148 | (0.009, 0.287) | 0.037 | 0.311 | (0.200, 0.421) | 0.000 | |
Health | 0.249 | (0.217, 0.282) | 0.000 | 0.225 | (0.195, 0.256) | 0.000 | 0.248 | (0.216, 0.281) | 0.000 | 0.225 | (0.195, 0.256) | 0.000 | |
Finance | 0.461 | (0.414, 0.509) | 0.000 | 0.381 | (0.340, 0.422) | 0.000 | 0.463 | (0.415, 0.511) | 0.000 | 0.381 | (0.340, 0.422) | 0.000 | |
Chow Test | F | 12.712 | 13.758 | ||||||||||
p Value | 0.000 | 0.000 | |||||||||||
Obs | 4973 | 5779 | 4973 | 5779 | |||||||||
Pseudo R2 | 0.0744 | 0.0579 | 0.0759 | 0.0592 | |||||||||
Log likelihood | −5142.1443 | −6118.2294 | −5134.2228 | −6110.2975 | |||||||||
Prob>chi2 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
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Liu, Y.; Li, R.-L.; Song, Y.; Zhang, Z.-J. The Role of Environmental Tax in Alleviating the Impact of Environmental Pollution on Residents’ Happiness in China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 4574. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16224574
Liu Y, Li R-L, Song Y, Zhang Z-J. The Role of Environmental Tax in Alleviating the Impact of Environmental Pollution on Residents’ Happiness in China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(22):4574. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16224574
Chicago/Turabian StyleLiu, Yu, Rong-Lin Li, Yang Song, and Zhi-Jiang Zhang. 2019. "The Role of Environmental Tax in Alleviating the Impact of Environmental Pollution on Residents’ Happiness in China" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 22: 4574. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16224574