Do the Emotions of Middle-Income Mothers Affect Fetal Development More Than Those of High-Income Mothers?—The Association between Maternal Emotion and Fetal Development
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Research Objectives
2.2. Study Sample
2.3. Procedure
2.4. Variables
2.4.1. Independent Variables
Maternal Depression
Maternal Stress
Maternal Emotions
Maternal-Fetal Attachment
Serum Cortisol Level
2.4.2. Dependent Variables
2.4.3. Covariates
2.5. Data Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristics | Categories | N (%) or M ± SD | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Middle-Income Group (n = 72) | High-Income Group (n = 49) | t or χ2 | ||
Maternal age | - | 29.74 ± 3.94 | 30.24 ± 3.54 | −0.73 |
Mother’s occupational Status | Employed | 25 (34.7) | 43 (87.8) | 33.313 ** |
Unemployed | 47 (65.3) | 6 (12.2) | ||
Father’s occupational Status | Employed | 71 (98.6) | 49 (100) | 0.686 |
Unemployed | 1 (1.4) | 0 (0) | ||
Gestational age (day) | 16–20 weeks | 113.28 ± 5.42 | 112.78 ± 6.21 | −0.179 |
33–35 weeks | 240.57 ± 8.23 | 238.98 ± 7.78 | 1.07 | |
Maternal weight (kg) | 16–20 weeks | 60.31 ± 9.15 | 58.96 ± 8.82 | 0.806 |
33–35 weeks | 70.49 ± 9.25 | 68.35 ± 9.78 | 1.22 | |
Maternal weight gain (kg) | (33–35 weeks)–(16–20 weeks) | 10.18 ± 3.46 | 9.39 ± 3.43 | 1.24 |
Cortisol (µg/dL) | 16–20 weeks | 12.66 ± 4.73 | 12.18 ± 3.97 | 0.58 |
33–35 weeks | 24.53 ± 6.18 | 23.44 ± 7.42 | 0.875 |
Variable | Middle-Income Group (n = 72) | High-Income Group (n = 49) | |
---|---|---|---|
M ± SD | M ± SD | t | |
T1: 16–20 Weeks | |||
Positive emotion | 19.08 ± 7.26 | 21.1 ± 6.55 | −1.560 |
Negative emotion | 6.59 ± 5.98 | 5.42 ± 4.70 | 1.199 |
Depression | 7.68 ± 3.96 | 5.12 ± 3.55 | 3.630 ** |
Maternal-fetal attachment | 60.2 ± 8.48 | 62.4 ± 8.17 | −1.447 |
Stress | 70.56 ± 13.2 | 64.3 ± 15.8 | 2.323 * |
Fetal weight (g) | 161.03 ± 37.37 | 161.67 ± 36.43 | −0.094 |
Biparietal diameter (cm) | 3.49 ± 0.34 | 3.45 ± 0.35 | 0.728 |
T2: 33–35 Weeks | |||
Positive emotion | 19.72 ± 6.65 | 20.37 ± 7.3 | −0.504 |
Negative emotion | 8.88 ± 7.28 | 8.9 ± 7.31 | −0.017 |
Depression | 6.58 ± 4.14 | 5.73 ± 3.66 | 1.159 |
Maternal-fetal attachment | 62.19 ± 8.47 | 63.27 ± 7.77 | −0.706 |
Stress | 68.9 ± 16.69 | 63.24 ± 19.36 | 1.715 |
Fetal weight (g) | 2404.89 ± 317.26 | 2347.84 ± 365.91 | 0.912 |
Biparietal diameter (cm) | 8.76 ± 0.34 | 8.68 ± 0.44 | 1.035 |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Maternal Weight Gain | 1 | 0.068 | −0.179 | −0.195 | 0.049 | 0.038 | −0.029 | −0.134 | −0.168 | 0.036 | 0.024 | −0.164 | −0.051 | 0.155 | −0.006 | 0.338 * | 0.248 |
2. Cortisol1 | −0.046 | 1 | −0.259 | 0.001 | 0.124 | 0.089 | 0.068 | 0.234 | 0.253 | 0.243 | −0.003 | −0.122 | 0.089 | −0.103 | −0.019 | −0.061 | 0.066 |
3. Positive emotion1 | −0.038 | 0.017 | 1 | −0.066 | −0.270 | 0.271 | −0.353* | −0.140 | −0.013 | 0.188 | 0.475 ** | 0.105 | −0.145 | 0.342 * | −0.315 * | 0.057 | −0.020 |
4. Negative emotion1 | −0.010 | −0.140 | 0.000 | 1 | 0.483 ** | −0.329 * | 0.391 ** | 0.032 | 0.025 | −0.036 | −0.111 | 0.413 ** | 0.062 | −0.226 | 0.313* | 0.049 | 0.096 |
5. Depression1 | −0.105 | −0.104 | −0.368 ** | 0.494 ** | 1 | −0.186 | 0.608 ** | 0.044 | −0.033 | −0.173 | −0.140 | 0.327 * | 0.466 ** | 0.105 | 0.533 ** | −0.011 | 0.084 |
6. Maternal-Fetal Attachment1 | −0.096 | 0.106 | 0.167 | −0.058 | 0.078 | 1 | −0.114 | 0.136 | 0.048 | 0.222 | 0.367 ** | −0.229 | −0.123 | 0.555 ** | −0.089 | −0.010 | 0.193 |
7. Stress1 | 0.100 | −0.111 | −0.400 ** | 0.345 ** | 0.484 ** | 0.110 | 1 | 0.202 | 0.107 | −0.135 | −0.320 * | 0.496 ** | 0.485 ** | −0.101 | 0.763 ** | −0.015 | 0.036 |
8. Fetal Weight1 | −0.124 | 0.316 ** | 0.057 | −0.218 | −0.123 | 0.169 | −0.211 | 1 | 0.871 ** | −0.040 | −0.205 | 0.107 | 0.151 | −0.159 | 0.174 | −0.081 | 0.016 |
9. Biparietal Diameter1 | −0.149 | 0.218 | 0.028 | −0.270 * | −0.106 | 0.085 | −0.189 | 0.889 ** | 1 | 0.097 | −0.167 | 0.119 | 0.160 | −0.191 | 0.111 | −0.112 | 0.017 |
10. Cortisol2 | 0.121 | 0.416 ** | −0.022 | 0.123 | 0.099 | −0.037 | −0.009 | 0.052 | −0.030 | 1 | 0.243 | −0.148 | −0.055 | 0.184 | −0.230 | −0.100 | 0.045 |
11. Positive Emotion2 | −0.101 | −0.051 | 0.318** | 0.111 | −0.041 | 0.175 | 0.012 | −0.145 | −0.133 | −0.146 | 1 | −0.023 | −0.228 | 0.571 ** | −0.528 ** | 0.117 | 0.274 |
12. Negative Emotion2 | 0.041 | −0.146 | −0.267 * | 0.295 * | 0.424 ** | 0.208 | 0.428 ** | −0.088 | −0.084 | 0.027 | 0.114 | 1 | 0.514 ** | −0.128 | 0.571 ** | 0.028 | −0.027 |
13. Depression2 | 0.108 | −0.105 | −0.093 | 0.391 ** | 0.422 ** | 0.193 | 0.329 ** | −0.099 | −0.116 | 0.189 | −0.298 * | 0.600 ** | 1 | −0.082 | 0.582 ** | 0.146 | 0.130 |
14. Maternal-Fetal Attachment2 | −0.084 | 0.049 | 0.124 | 0.076 | −0.050 | 0.432 ** | 0.060 | 0.071 | 0.065 | 0.014 | 0.518 ** | −0.035 | −0.105 | 1 | −0.231 | −0.060 | 0.192 |
15. Stress2 | 0.209 | 0.037 | −0.251 * | 0.124 | 0.273 * | 0.079 | 0.513 ** | 0.011 | 0.071 | 0.118 | −0.238 * | 0.484 ** | 0.424 ** | −0.177 | 1 | 0.071 | 0.036 |
16. Fetal Weight2 | 0.167 | −0.074 | −0.114 | −0.256 * | −0.221 | 0.241 * | −0.064 | −0.080 | −0.138 | −0.256 * | −0.039 | 0.034 | −0.050 | 0.030 | −0.087 | 1 | 0.659 ** |
17. Biparietal Diameter2 | 0.037 | 0.045 | −0.104 | −0.380 ** | −0.178 | 0.286 * | −0.135 | 0.036 | 0.050 | −0.122 | −0.077 | 0.072 | 0.021 | −0.011 | −0.012 | 0.564 ** | 1 |
Dependent Variables | Fetal Weight (g) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | SE B | β | p | 95% CI | |||
Independent Variables | LL | UL | |||||
Intercepts | −5049.039 | 653.763 | - | <0.001 | −6344.262 | −3753.816 | |
Household income | −0.343 | 0.240 | −0.103 | 0.156 | −0.818 | 0.133 | |
Cortisol(33–35 weeks) | −4.700 | 3.066 | −0.093 | 0.128 | −10.774 | 1.374 | |
Mother’s occupation status | 96.196 | 49.462 | 0.142 | 0.054 | −1.798 | 194.190 | |
Positive emotion (16–20 weeks) | −3.033 | 2.969 | −0.063 | 0.309 | −8.915 | 2.848 | |
Maternal-fetal attachment (16–20 weeks) | 7.567 | 2.448 | 0.188 | 0.003** | 2.716 | 12.417 |
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Kim, D.; Lee, I.; Bang, K.-S.; Kim, S.; Yi, Y. Do the Emotions of Middle-Income Mothers Affect Fetal Development More Than Those of High-Income Mothers?—The Association between Maternal Emotion and Fetal Development. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 2065. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16112065
Kim D, Lee I, Bang K-S, Kim S, Yi Y. Do the Emotions of Middle-Income Mothers Affect Fetal Development More Than Those of High-Income Mothers?—The Association between Maternal Emotion and Fetal Development. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(11):2065. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16112065
Chicago/Turabian StyleKim, Dasom, Insook Lee, Kyung-Sook Bang, Sungjae Kim, and Yunjeong Yi. 2019. "Do the Emotions of Middle-Income Mothers Affect Fetal Development More Than Those of High-Income Mothers?—The Association between Maternal Emotion and Fetal Development" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 11: 2065. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16112065
APA StyleKim, D., Lee, I., Bang, K.-S., Kim, S., & Yi, Y. (2019). Do the Emotions of Middle-Income Mothers Affect Fetal Development More Than Those of High-Income Mothers?—The Association between Maternal Emotion and Fetal Development. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(11), 2065. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16112065