The Impact of a City-Level Minimum Wage Policy on Supermarket Food Prices by Food Quality Metrics: A Two-Year Follow Up Study
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Food Categorizations
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Date of Data Collection | Minimum Wage Rate for Large Employers Not Paying Towards Employee Medical Benefits (in USD) | Minimum Wage Rate for Large Employers Paying Towards Employee Medical Benefits (in USD) | Time Point |
---|---|---|---|
March 2015 | $9.47/h | $9.47/h | 1-month pre-enactment |
May 2015 | $11.00/h | $11.00/h | 1-month post-enactment |
May 2016 | $13.00/h | $12.50/h | 1-year post-enactment |
May 2017 | $15.00/h | $13.50/h | 2-year post-enactment |
Food Processing Category | Defined as | Market Basket Examples |
---|---|---|
Unprocessed or minimally processed foods | Foods taken directly from nature; minimally processed to clean, pasteurize, freeze, or other processes that do not alter the composition | Rice, milk, apples, frozen turkey, broccoli (n = 59) |
Processed culinary ingredients | Ingredients that can be added to unprocessed or minimally processed foods for flavor or seasoning used in the cooking process | Flour, butter, shortening, sugar (n = 12) |
Processed foods | Unprocessed or minimally processed food that are processed or further processed, often with salt or oil, with the intent of extending shelf-life or altering palatability | Tortillas, tofu, canned salmon, canned corn (n = 10) |
Ultra-processed foods | Foods that are highly processed with the intent of convenience and ready-to-eat/drink | Cookies, ice cream, salad dressing, sausages, cola, potato chips (n = 27) |
Nutrient Density Quartile | NRF9.3 Score Range | Example Foods | |
---|---|---|---|
Quartile 1—Least nutrient dense foods | −13.6 ± 17.4 | −51.6–8.8 | Butter, cookies, bologna, potato chips, cola, cheese (n = 26) |
Quartile 2—Moderately nutrient dense foods | 20.2 ± 5.7 | 9.26–30.2 | Potatoes, Turkey Eggs, steak, rice, bread (n = 25) |
Quartile 3—Nutrient dense foods | 56.8 ± 22.8 | 30.3–112.5 | Peaches, chicken breast, beans, grapes, cereal, salmon, bananas (n = 27) |
Quartile 4—Highly nutrient dense foods | 232.3 ± 90.1 | 117.8–479.5 | Green beans, spinach, grapefruit, sweet peppers, carrots, cantaloupe, asparagus, sweet potatoes (n = 25) |
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Mean Difference in Price Estimates Price per 100 kcal (in USD) (Robust Standard Errors) | Overall | Food Group | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cereals & Grains | Dairy | Fats & Oils | Fruits | Meats, Beans, Eggs, & Nuts | Sugar & Sweets | Vegetables | ||
Seattle (relative to King County) | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.05 | −0.01 | 0.03 | 0.05 |
(0.082) | (0.020) | (0.039) | (0.018) | (0.139) | (0.065) | (0.140) | (0.174) | |
Follow-up 1 (relative to baseline) | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.00 | −0.04 | −0.01 | −0.08 | 0.07 |
(0.017) | (0.009) | (0.006) | (0.003) | (0.057) | (0.006) | (0.075) | (0.043) | |
Follow-up 2 (relative to baseline) | −0.01 | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 | −0.01 | −0.10 | 0.02 |
(0.014) | (0.013) | (0.010) | (0.005) | (0.062) | (0.016) | (0.086) | (0.026) | |
Follow-up 3 (relative to baseline) | 0.03 | −0.02 * | −0.03 | 0.00 | 0.05 | 0.00 | −0.12 | 0.16 *** |
(0.019) | (0.011) | (0.016) | (0.005) | (0.069) | (0.023) | (0.087) | (0.034) | |
Seattle × Follow-up 1 | −0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | −0.03 | 0.00 | −0.03 | −0.03 |
(0.026) | (0.011) | (0.012) | (0.004) | (0.070) | (0.008) | (0.132) | (0.063) | |
Seattle × Follow-up 2 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | −0.02 | 0.00 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
(0.019) | (0.019) | (0.014) | (0.007) | (0.082) | (0.022) | (0.147) | (0.036) | |
Seattle × Follow-up 3 | 0.00 | −0.01 | −0.01 | 0.01 | −0.05 | 0.02 | −0.02 | −0.01 |
(0.024) | (0.016) | (0.024) | (0.007) | (0.087) | (0.031) | (0.149) | (0.060) | |
Observations | 4869 | 665 | 573 | 185 | 605 | 1424 | 286 | 1131 |
Number of stores | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 |
R2 within | 0.0003 | 0.0031 | 0.0067 | 0.0139 | 0.0010 | 0.0006 | 0.0271 | 0.0018 |
R2 between | 0.0025 | 0.2010 | 0.0000 | 0.0036 | 0.0069 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0054 |
R2 overall | 0.0003 | 0.0032 | 0.0055 | 0.0036 | 0.0012 | 0.0006 | 0.0253 | 0.0019 |
Mean Difference in Price Estimates Price per 100 kcal (in USD) (Robust Standard Errors) | Food Processing Category | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Unprocessed or Minimally Processed Foods | Processed Culinary Ingredients | Processed Foods | Ultra-Processed Foods | |
Seattle (relative to King County) | 0.03 | −0.00 | 0.01 | 0.01 |
(0.107) | (0.010) | (0.096) | (0.054) | |
Follow-up 1 (relative to baseline) | 0.02 | 0.00 | −0.03 * | −0.02 |
(0.027) | (0.003) | (0.011) | (0.015) | |
Follow-up 2 (relative to baseline) | −0.01 | 0.01 *** | −0.01 | −0.01 |
(0.017) | (0.002) | (0.033) | (0.024) | |
Follow-up 3 (relative to baseline) | 0.08 *** | 0.00 | −0.04 | −0.04 |
(0.022) | (0.002) | (0.038) | (0.024) | |
Seattle × Follow-up 1 | −0.02 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 |
(0.037) | (0.003) | (0.018) | (0.029) | |
Seattle × Follow-up 2 | 0.01 | 0.00 | −0.01 | −0.01 |
(0.021) | (0.003) | (0.049) | (0.038) | |
Seattle × Follow-up 3 | −0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 |
(0.034) | (0.003) | (0.045) | (0.039) | |
Observations | 2,778 | 323 | 480 | 1,288 |
Number of stores | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 |
R2 within | 0.0008 | 0.0107 | 0.0011 | 0.0049 |
R2 between | 0.0052 | 0.0070 | 0.0006 | 0.0011 |
R2 overall | 0.0009 | 0.0094 | 0.0010 | 0.0043 |
Mean Difference in Price Estimates Price per 100 kcal (in USD) (Robust Standard Errors) | NRF 9.3 Quartile | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Quartile 1: Least Nutrient Dense Foods | Quartile 2: Moderately Nutrient Dense Foods | Quartile 3: Nutrient Dense Foods | Quartile 4: Highly Nutrient Dense Foods | |
Seattle (relative to King County) | 0.01 | −0.00 | 0.01 | 0.06 |
(0.051) | (0.033) | (0.099) | (0.169) | |
Follow-up 1 (relative to baseline) | −0.02 | 0.01 | −0.02 | 0.05 |
(0.016) | (0.006) | (0.029) | (0.039) | |
Follow-up 2 (relative to baseline) | −0.02 | −0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 |
(0.021) | (0.009) | (0.025) | (0.030) | |
Follow-up 3 (relative to baseline) | −0.04 | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.18 *** |
(0.021) | (0.014) | (0.039) | (0.032) | |
Seattle × Follow-up 1 | −0.00 | −0.00 | −0.01 | −0.03 |
(0.030) | (0.007) | (0.040) | (0.061) | |
Seattle × Follow-up 2 | −0.01 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
(0.035) | (0.017) | (0.034) | (0.037) | |
Seattle × Follow-up 3 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | −0.04 |
(0.035) | (0.020) | (0.047) | (0.067) | |
Observations | 1236 | 1194 | 1266 | 1173 |
Number of stores | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 |
R2 within | 0.0048 | 0.0003 | 0.0001 | 0.0030 |
R2 between | 0.0090 | 0.0002 | 0.0003 | 0.0071 |
R2 overall | 0.0050 | 0.0002 | 0.0001 | 0.0032 |
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Buszkiewicz, J.; House, C.; Aggarwal, A.; Long, M.; Drewnowski, A.; Otten, J.J. The Impact of a City-Level Minimum Wage Policy on Supermarket Food Prices by Food Quality Metrics: A Two-Year Follow Up Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 102. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16010102
Buszkiewicz J, House C, Aggarwal A, Long M, Drewnowski A, Otten JJ. The Impact of a City-Level Minimum Wage Policy on Supermarket Food Prices by Food Quality Metrics: A Two-Year Follow Up Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(1):102. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16010102
Chicago/Turabian StyleBuszkiewicz, James, Cathy House, Anju Aggarwal, Mark Long, Adam Drewnowski, and Jennifer J. Otten. 2019. "The Impact of a City-Level Minimum Wage Policy on Supermarket Food Prices by Food Quality Metrics: A Two-Year Follow Up Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 1: 102. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16010102
APA StyleBuszkiewicz, J., House, C., Aggarwal, A., Long, M., Drewnowski, A., & Otten, J. J. (2019). The Impact of a City-Level Minimum Wage Policy on Supermarket Food Prices by Food Quality Metrics: A Two-Year Follow Up Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(1), 102. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16010102