Urban Green Space and Its Impact on Human Health
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Article Selection
3.2. Study Design and Procedures
3.3. Sample Characteristics
3.4. Location
3.5. Green Space Exposure Measurement
3.5.1. Green Space Characteristics of Residential Area
3.5.2. Green Space Characteristics of Activity Space
3.5.3. Nature Walk/Run
3.5.4. Greening Interventions
3.5.5. Nature Leisure Experience
3.5.6. Residential Relocation
3.6. Health Outcomes
3.6.1. Birth Outcomes
3.6.2. Cancer
3.6.3. Cardiovascular
3.6.4. Mental Health
3.6.5. Metabolic
3.6.6. Mortality
3.6.7. Physical Activity
3.6.8. Respiratory
3.6.9. Violence
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Between-subjects design (n = 14) | ||||
Barton et al., 2011 | 53 | 53 | both | Adults with mental health problems |
Bratman et al., 2015 | 38 | 27 | both | Adults residing in urban areas |
Brooks et al., 2017 | 121 | 22 | both | University students |
Brown et al., 2014 | 100 | 42 | both | Adults; employees of a UK-based company |
Carrus et al., 2015 | 569 | 41 | NDR | Adult visitors to study sites |
Grazuleviciene et al., 2015 | 20 | 63 | both | Adults (ages 45–75); residents of Kaunas city with cardiopulmonary disease |
Grazuleviciene et al., 2016 | 20 | 63 | both | Adults (ages 45–75); residents of Kaunas city with cardiopulmonary disease |
Gustat et al., 2012 | 473 | 44 | both | Adults; residents of intervention and comparison neighborhoods |
Hartig et al., 1991 | 34 | 20 | both | University students |
Jones et al., 2009 | 100 | DNR | both | Youth (ages 9–10) |
Kuo 2001 | 145 | DNR | DNR | Adults; residents of Robert Taylor Homes, Chicago, USA |
Mayer et al., 2009 | 76 | DNR | both | University students |
South et al., 2015 | 12 | DNR | both | Adults living within 2 blocks of study lots |
van den Berg and Custers 2011 | 30 | 58 | both | Adult members of allotment complex |
Case-control or Case cross-over (n = 3) | ||||
Demoury et al., 2017 | 3927 | 64/65 | male | Prostate cancer patients and population controls |
Gronlund et al., 2015 | DNR | DNR | DNR | Decedents of all-natural, heat-related, cardiovascular, and respiratory cause mortality |
Kondo et al., 2017 | 409 | 18/19 | male | Boys and men (ages 10–24 years) who had been gun assaulted and community controls |
Quasi-experimental (n = 9) | ||||
Alcock et al., 2014 | 1064 | 38 | both | Individuals who relocated to a different residential area |
Beenackers et al., 2012 | 1427 | 40 | both | Adults moving in to new housing developments |
Branas et al., 2011 | 4436 | NA | NA | Vacant lots |
Droomers et al., 2016 | 48,132 | DNR | both | Respondents to Dutch National Health Interview Survey |
Kondo et al., 2015 | 238 | NA | NA | GSI eligible and project sites |
Kondo et al., 2016 | 244 | NA | NA | Vacant lots |
Kondo et al., 2017 | 307 | NA | NA | Block groups infected with EAB |
Semenza et al., 2006 | 265 | DNR | both | Residents living within 2 blocks of study sites |
Thompson et al., 2013 | 215 | DNR | both | Adults (ages 16+) |
RCT (n = 1) | ||||
Garvin et al., 2012 | 21 | 46 | both | Adults |
Citations | Sample Size | Mean Age | Sex | Population |
Longitudinal cohort (n = 20) | ||||
Astell-Burt et al., 2014 | 65,407 | DNR | both | Adults (ages 15+) surveyed in British Household Panel Survey |
Bell et al., 2008 | 3831 | DNR | both | Youth (ages 3–16) residents of Marion County |
Crouse et al., 2017 | 1,170,343 | DNR | both | Adult (ages 19+); non-immigrant, urban Canadians deceased or not deceased |
Cusack et al., 2017 | 3,026,603 | NA | both | Mothers living in metro areas of Texas |
Dadvand et al., 2015 | 2593 | 9 | both | Youth (ages 7–10); school children in Barcelona |
Fuertes et al., 2014 | 5803 | DNR | both | Youth (ages ≤ 10); birth cohorts from Munich or Ruhr area, Germany |
Gose et al., 2013 | 485 | 6 | both | Youth (ages 9–11); residents of Kiel, Germany |
Gubbels et al., 2016 | 401/454 | 13/46 | both | Adolescents/Adults; residents of deprived urban districts in Netherlands |
James et al., 2017 | 108,603 | 69 | female | Registered nurses (ages 30–55 in 1976) from 11 USA states |
Michael et al., 2014 | 2003 | 146 | female | White, non-Hispanic women (ages 65+) living in four metropolitan areas of USA |
Paquet et al., 2014 | 3205 | DNR | both | Adults (ages 18+); residents of Adelaide, Australia |
Richardson et al., 2017 | 2909 | 5 | both | Youth (age 12 mo. in 2005) residents of urban Scotland |
Sugiyama et al., 2013 | 1036 | 49 | both | Adults; residents of Adelaide, Australia |
Tamosiunas et al., 2014 | 5112 | 60 | both | Adults (ages 45–72); residents of Kaunas city |
Takano et al., 2002 | 3144 | DNR | both | Adults (born in 1903, 1908, 1913, or 1918); residents of Tokyo metro area, Japan |
Villeneuve et al., 2012 | 575,000 | DNR | both | Adults (ages 35+); residents of urban Ontario, Canada |
Wilker et al., 2014 | 1645 | 73 | both | Patients admitted for acute ischemic stroke |
Wolch et al., 2011 | 3173 | DNR | both | Youth (ages 9–10); residents of southern CA, USA |
Wolfe et al., 2014 | 1112 | 64 | both | Individuals with medically diagnosed somatic chronic disease |
Younan et al., 2016 | 1287 | DNR | both | Youth (ages 9–18); monozygotic and dizygotic twin pairs who had at least two assessments of aggressive behaviors |
Within-subjects design (n = 21) | ||||
Almanza et al., 2012 | 208 | DNR | both | Parent-child (ages 8–14) pairs; residents of Chino, CA, USA |
Aspinall et al., 2015 | 12 | 31 | both | University students |
Beil and Hanes 2013 | 15 | 42 | both | Adults; residents of Portland metro area, OR, USA |
Butryn and Furst 2003 | 30 | 31 | female | Non-elite distance runners |
Coombes et al., 2013 | 100 | DNR | both | Youth (ages 9–10); school children in Norfolk, England |
de Vries et al., 2007 | 422 | 8 | both | Youth (ages 6–11); residents of deprived urban neighborhoods in Netherlands |
Gidlow et al., 2016 | 38 | 41 | both | Adults (ages 18+); living, working or studying in West Midlands, UK |
Hull and Michael 1995 | 108 | 22 | both | Park visitors |
Klinker et al., 2014a | 192 | 13 | both | Youth (ages 11–16); school children in Haraldsgade district, Denmark |
Klinker et al., 2014b | 170 | 13 | both | Youth (ages 11–16); school children in Haraldsgade district, Denmark |
Lachowycz et al., 2012 | 902 | 12 | both | Youth (ages 10–11); school children in Bristol, England |
Citations | Sample Size | Mean Age | Sex | Population |
Moore et al., 2014 | 28 | 12 | both | Youth (ages 11–14); school children in Middlesbrough, England |
Oreskovic et al., 2015 | 80 | 13 | both | Youth (ages 11–14); non-Hispanic white and black, and Hispanic who sought care at a community health or recreation center and resident of Boston area, MA, USA |
Passmore and Howell 2014 | 84 | 21 | both | University students |
Rodríguez et al., 2012 | 145 | 16 | female | Youth; school children in 8th grade in San Diego and Minneapolis/St. Paul metro areas, USA |
Sellers et al., 2012 | 40 | 23 | both | University students |
Song et al., 2014 | 17 | 21 | male | University students |
Song et al., 2015 | 23 | 22 | male | University students |
Song et al., 2013 | 13 | 23 | male | University students |
Tyrväinen et al., 2014 | 77 | DNR | both | Adults; working in Helsinki, Finland |
Zenk et al., 2011 | 120 | DNR | both | Residents of three areas of Detroit, MI USA |
Green Space Exposure Type | Exposure Details | ||
Case/Intervention Group or Cohort | Control Group(s) | Studies | |
Green space characteristics of activity location (n = 11) | |||
Urban green space at location of activity (pathpoint) | [21,23,27,28,29,30,31] | ||
Park land use at location of activity (pathpoint) | [25,32,34] | ||
Percent park land use within residential neighborhood and activity space | [52] | ||
Parks and tree-lined streets near the residence; garden at the residence | [72] | ||
Green space characteristics of residential area (n = 23) | |||
Average NDVI within proximity of residence | [18,22,24,35,39,45,51,65,66,68,74] | ||
Percent green space within administrative boundary of residence | [41,53,55,63] | ||
Distance from residence to nearest park or green space | [19,29,48] | ||
Percent natural space and parks within 500 m of residence; garden access | [33] | ||
Surrounding greenness index: Average NDVI within 250 m of residence, 50 m of home-school commute, and 50 m of school | [17] | ||
Subjective scoring of quantity of neighborhood green space and water | [26] | ||
Residence in public housing units with vegetation | Residence in public housing units without vegetation | [46] | |
Presence, quality, proximity, area, and number of green spaces within a 1.6 km of neighborhood center | [75] | ||
Greening intervention (n = 12) | |||
Proximity to cleaned-and-greened vacant lot | Proximity to untreated vacant lot | [13,14] | |
Presence of emerald ash borer in Census block; number of trees removed | Absence of emerald ash borer in Census block | [16] | |
Proximity to green stormwater infrastructure project | Proximity to green stormwater infrastructure wait-list control site | [15] | |
Residence in one of 24 neighborhoods with green space improvements | Residence in one of 12 neighborhoods without green space improvements | [61] | |
Residence within 2 blocks of cleaned-and-greened vacant lots | Residence within 2 blocks of untreated control vacant lots | [40] | |
Residence in one of 20 neighborhoods with green space improvements; perceived greenery | Residence in one of 20 neighborhoods without green space improvements; perceived greenery | [20] | |
Residence in greenway trail intervention neighborhood | Residence within 2 control neighborhoods without green space improvements | [42] | |
Residence within 2-blocks of new planters | Residence within 2-blocks of new planters | [49] | |
Walk (15 min) near vacant lots before after greening | Walks (15 min twice 3 months apart) near vacant lots | [50] | |
Distance from residence to nearest city park (>1 hectare) | Distance from residence to nearest city park (>1 hectare) | [78] | |
Residence in neighborhood with green space improvements and within 500 m of green space | Residence in neighborhood with no green space improvements | [60] | |
Nature walk/exercise (n = 15) | |||
Walk (15 min) in urban green space | Walk (15 min) in urban built area | [69,70,71] | |
Walks (30 min for 7 days) in urban park | Walks (30 min for 7 days) in urban street environment | [76,77] | |
Walk (25 min) in urban green space | Walk (25 min) in urban shopping street; Walk (25 min) in commercial district | [54] | |
Social urban park walks once/week for 6 weeks | Social club or swimming club once/week for 6 weeks | [56] | |
Walk (90 min) in urban-area open space preserve | Walk (90 min) in built urban | [37] | |
Walks (20 min twice per week for 8 weeks) in urban nature | Walks (20 min twice per week for 8 weeks) in built urban | [57] | |
Run (4 miles) in urban park | Run (4 miles) in urban industrial area | [38] | |
Walks (30 min on 3 consecutive days) in urban country park | Walks (30 min on 3 consecutive days) in urban built and blue settings | [58] | |
Walk (40 min) in urban-area open space preserve | Walk (40 min) in urban area; relax in indoor setting | [43] | |
Walk (30 min) in urban park | Walk (30 min) in urban setting | [59] | |
Walk (9 min) in outdoor urban campus | Walk (9 min) indoors | [64] | |
Viewing session (15 min), Walk (30 min) in urban park | Viewing session (15 min), Walk (30 min) in center city | [79] | |
Nature leisure experience (n = 4) | |||
Outdoor sitting (20 min) in forested urban nature preserve | Outdoor sitting (20 min) in (1) tree-lined urban park, (2) urban plaza, or (3) outdoor shopping mall | [36] | |
Visit to urban and peri-urban natural settings that vary as a function of biodiversity | Visit to urban squares with green elements, urban parks, pinewood forest plantations, and peri-urban natural protected areas | [80] | |
Leisure time (85 min to 3 h) in urban park | Leisure time (2 hrs) in home | [44] | |
30 min of outdoor gardening | 30 min of indoor reading | [62] | |
Daytime nature activities (2 weeks) | Daytime anagram puzzles (2 weeks) | [67] | |
Residential relocation (n = 1) | |||
Perceived access to parks | [73] |
Health Outcome Measure | Citations | Health Outcome Measure | Citations |
---|---|---|---|
Behavior | Metabolic | ||
Behavioral problems | [33] | Abdominal obesity | [74] |
Smoking | [78] | BMI | [22,24,48,51,57,78] |
Cortisol | [36,58,62,76,79] | ||
Birth Outcomes | Diabetes | [74] | |
Birth weight | [39] | Prediabetes | [74] |
Preterm birth | [39] | ||
Small for gestational age | [39] | Mortality | |
Acute ischemic stroke | [45,51] | ||
Cancer | Any/all cause | [45,68,72] | |
Prostate cancer | [66] | Cancer | [45] |
Diabetes | [45] | ||
Cardiovascular | Cardiovascular | [41,65,78] | |
Autonomic function | [57] | Cerebrovascular | [65] |
Blood pressure - hypertension | [13,36,74,78] | Infections and parasitic disease | [45] |
Ischemic/coronary artery disease | [45,65] | ||
Cholesterol | [13,36,78] | Kidney | [45] |
CVD risk | [57] | Neurodegenerative disease | [45] |
Diastolic blood pressure | [43,57,76,77] | Respiratory | [45,65,68] |
Dyslipidaemia | [74] | ||
Heart rate (HR) | [43,50,57,69,70,71,76,77] | Physical Activity | |
Heart rate recovery | [77] | Cycling frequency | [20] |
Heart rate variability-ln(HF) | [57,58,69,70,71] | Exercise duration | [77] |
Heart rate variability-ln(LF) | [58] | Exercise frequency | [13] [60] |
Heart rate variability-ln(LF/HF) | [58,69,70,71] | MVPA | [21,23,25,26,27,28,29,31,32,34,52,59] |
Heart rate variability-percent coefficient of component variance | [58] | Physical activity—duration | [78] |
Peak diastolic blood pressure (DBP) during exercise | [77] | Taking up cycling for transport | [73] |
Peak heart rate | [77] | Walking frequency | [20,42,61,75] |
Peak systolic blood pressure (SBP) during exercise | [77] | Work load | [77] |
Predicted aerobic fitness | [57] | Physical Health | |
Pulse wave velocity | [77] | Physical health | [57] |
Systolic blood pressure | [43,57,76,77] | Predicted aerobic fitness | [57] |
Mental Health | Mental Health | ||
Anger | [38,43,69,70] | Sadness | [43] |
Anxiety | [38,64,71] | Satisfaction | [60] |
Anxious | [44] | Self-esteem | [56] |
Attention | [17,46,47,58,79] | Stress | [13,36,64] |
Attentiveness | [43] | Subgenual prefrontal cortex activation | [37] |
Calm | [44] | Tired | [44] |
Confusion | [38,69,70] | Total mood disturbance | [56] |
Depression | [20,38,49,64,69,70] | Vigor | [38,69,70] |
Elevating experience | [64] | Social capital | |
Emotions | [38,54,71] | Sense of community | [49] |
Energy | [44] | ||
Fatigue | [38,69,70] | Violence-Aggression | |
Fear | [43] | Aggression | [35] |
General health | [51,55,57,61,78] | Drug crimes | [13,16,36] |
Happiness | [43] | Gun assault | [30] |
Life functioning | [46,47] | Nuisance crimes | [13,16,36] |
Mental health | [53,57] | Perceived safety | [40] |
Motivation | [67] | Property crime | [14,16,36] |
Nature connectedness | [67] | Violent crime | [13,14,16,36] |
Negative affect | [47,62,64,67,76] | ||
Positive affect | [43,47,62,64,67,76] | Respiratory | |
Quality of life | [78] | Aeroallergen Sensitization | [18] |
Restoration | [36,58,79,80] | Allergic rhinitis | [18] |
Rumination | [37,38] | Ear and nose symptoms | [18] |
© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Kondo, M.C.; Fluehr, J.M.; McKeon, T.; Branas, C.C. Urban Green Space and Its Impact on Human Health. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 445. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15030445
Kondo MC, Fluehr JM, McKeon T, Branas CC. Urban Green Space and Its Impact on Human Health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2018; 15(3):445. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15030445
Chicago/Turabian StyleKondo, Michelle C., Jaime M. Fluehr, Thomas McKeon, and Charles C. Branas. 2018. "Urban Green Space and Its Impact on Human Health" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15, no. 3: 445. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15030445