Mercury Exposure in Ireland: Results of the DEMOCOPHES Human Biomonitoring Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experimental Section
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Response Rate
3.2. Profile
Profile | No. | % |
---|---|---|
Area of residence | ||
Urban | 60 | 50.0 |
Rural | 60 | 50.0 |
Highest education level in family | ||
Primary or lower secondary | 8 | 6.7 |
Higher secondary or post secondary non tertiary | 49 | 40.8 |
Tertiary education | 63 | 52.5 |
Single mothers | 16 | 13.3 |
Age of mother (years) | ||
≤35 | 34 | 28.3 |
35.1–40 | 41 | 34.2 |
>40 | 45 | 37.5 |
Age of child (years) | ||
5–8 | 61 | 50.8 |
9–11 | 59 | 49.2 |
Gender of child | ||
Boy | 63 | 52.5 |
Girl | 57 | 47.5 |
Mothers who smoke | 35 | 29.2 |
Households with at least one smoker | 51 | 42.5 |
Working outside home | ||
Mothers | 71 | 59.2 |
Fathers | 82 | 78.8 |
3.3. Overall Mercury Exposure
Key Statistics (µg/g) | Mothers (n = 120) | Children (n = 120) |
---|---|---|
Percent above limit of quantification (LOQ) | 79.20 | 62.50 |
Geometric mean | 0.165 | 0.097 |
Confidence interval | 0.137–0.198 | 0.082–0.114 |
Arithmetic mean | 0.262 | 0.149 |
Standard deviation | 0.264 | 0.152 |
Minimum | 0.035 | 0.035 |
Maximum | 1.460 | 0.875 |
10th percentile | 0.035 | 0.035 |
25th percentile | 0.089 | 0.035 |
50th percentile | 0.188 | 0.100 |
90th percentile | 0.616 | 0.352 |
95th percentile | 0.798 | 0.463 |
US EPA guidance value [23] | 2.0 1.0 |
3.4. Mercury Levels and Fish and Seafood Consumption
Mothers | Children | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fish Consumed
Several Times per Week | Those above LoQ | Geometric | Arithmetic | Those above LoQ | Geometric | Arithmetic | ||
No. | % | mean | mean | No. | % | mean | mean | |
Fish (all types) | 28 | 23.3 | 0.365 | 0.442 | 19 | 15.8 | 0.223 | 0.265 |
Marine fish | 13 | 10.9 | 0.314 | 0.353 | 13 | 10.8 | 0.208 | 0.232 |
Shellfish | 3 | 2.8 | 0.314 | 0.718 | 1 | 0.9 | NC * | 0.316 |
Freshwater fish | 1 | 1.0 | NC* | 0.167 | 3 | 0.9 | NC * | 0.232 |
Other products containing marine fish and shellfish ** | 6 | 5.9 | 0.172 | 0.188 | 3 | 2.8 | NC * | 0.232 |
3.5. Mercury Levels and Other Potential Sources of Exposure
Mothers | Children | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Other sources of Exposure | Those above LoQ | Geometric | Arithmetic | Those above LoQ | Geometric | Arithmetic | ||
No. | % | mean | mean | No. | % | mean | mean | |
Skin bleaching | 2 | 1.7 | 0.225 | 0.237 | ||||
Amalgam teeth fillings | 95 | 79.2 | 0.178 | 0.278 | 10 | 8.3 | 0.102 | 0.133 |
Hair toned/dyed in the last six months | 100 | 83.3 | 0.159 | 0.255 | 4 | 3.3 | 0.059 | 0.067 |
Chemical hair structure treatment in the last six months | 5 | 4.2 | 0.248 | 0.310 | 1 | 0.8 | NC * | 0.035 |
Anti lice shampoo used in the last six months | 14 | 11.7 | 0.184 | 0.213 | 19 | 15.8 | 0.082 | 0.108 |
Heavy metals industry in neighbourhood of residence | 6 | 5.0 | 0.138 | 0.177 | 6 | 5.0 | 0.083 | 0.097 |
Use of well/private water supply | 11 | 9.2 | 0.174 | 0.225 | 11 | 9.2 | 0.059 | 0.080 |
Use of public water supply | 109 | 90.8 | 0.164 | 0.266 | 109 | 90.8 | 0.102 | 0.156 |
Mercury thermometer broken in home | 6 | 5.0 | 0.140 | 0.150 | 6 | 5.0 | 0.090 | 0.110 |
Energy saving lamp broken in home | 20 | 16.7 | 0.146 | 0.232 | 20 | 16.7 | 0.075 | 0.106 |
Use of soldering iron indoors | 7 | 5.8 | 0.126 | 0.210 | 7 | 5.8 | 0.069 | 0.097 |
3.6. Predictors of Mercury Exposure
3.7. Discussion
4. Conclusions
Acknowledgements
Author Contributions
Conflict of Interests
References
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Cullen, E.; Evans, D.S.; Davidson, F.; Burke, P.; Burns, D.; Flanagan, A.; Griffin, C.; Kellegher, A.; Mannion, R.; Mulcahy, M.; Ryan, M.; Biot, P.; Casteleyn, L.; Castaño, A.; Angerer, J.; Koch, H.M.; Esteban, M.; Schindler, B.K.; Navarro, C.; Kolossa-Gehring, M.; Fiddicke, U.; Schoeters, G.; Hond, E.D.; Sepai, O.; Exley, K.; Bloemen, L.; Knudsen, L.E.; Joas, R.; Joas, A.; Aerts, D. Mercury Exposure in Ireland: Results of the DEMOCOPHES Human Biomonitoring Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2014, 11, 9760-9775. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110909760
Cullen E, Evans DS, Davidson F, Burke P, Burns D, Flanagan A, Griffin C, Kellegher A, Mannion R, Mulcahy M, Ryan M, Biot P, Casteleyn L, Castaño A, Angerer J, Koch HM, Esteban M, Schindler BK, Navarro C, Kolossa-Gehring M, Fiddicke U, Schoeters G, Hond ED, Sepai O, Exley K, Bloemen L, Knudsen LE, Joas R, Joas A, Aerts D. Mercury Exposure in Ireland: Results of the DEMOCOPHES Human Biomonitoring Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2014; 11(9):9760-9775. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110909760
Chicago/Turabian StyleCullen, Elizabeth, David S. Evans, Fred Davidson, Padraig Burke, Damien Burns, Andrew Flanagan, Chris Griffin, Anne Kellegher, Rory Mannion, Maurice Mulcahy, Michael Ryan, Pierre Biot, Ludwine Casteleyn, Argelia Castaño, Jürgen Angerer, Holger M. Koch, Marta Esteban, Birgit K. Schindler, Carmen Navarro, Marike Kolossa-Gehring, Ulrike Fiddicke, Greet Schoeters, Elly Den Hond, Ovnair Sepai, Karen Exley, Louis Bloemen, Lisbeth E. Knudsen, Reinhard Joas, Anke Joas, and Dominique Aerts. 2014. "Mercury Exposure in Ireland: Results of the DEMOCOPHES Human Biomonitoring Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 11, no. 9: 9760-9775. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110909760