Fucoxanthin: A Marine Carotenoid Exerting Anti-Cancer Effects by Affecting Multiple Mechanisms
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Anti-Carcinogenic Effects of Fucoxanthin
2.1. Decreased Incidence of Tumors
2.2. Antioxidant Effect of Fucoxanthin
2.3. Cell Viability/Anti-Proliferation of Cells
2.4. Cell Cycle Arrest
2.5. Apoptosis: Cytotoxic Effect
2.6. Metastasis
3. Molecules and Mechanisms Related to Apoptosis
3.1. Bcl-2 Proteins
3.2. The Caspase Pathway
3.3. MAPK and GADD45
3.4. NFκB
3.5. CYP3A4 Enzyme
3.6. Gap Junctional Intracellular Communication/Connexin Genes
3.7. Expression of N-Myc Oncogene, Survivin, and Angiogenic Activity
4. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Gagez, A.-L.; Thiery, V.; Pasquet, V.; Cadoret, J.-P.; Picot, L. Epoxycarotenoids and cancer. Review. Curr. Bioact. Compd. 2012, 8, 109–141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peng, J.; Yuan, J.-P.; Wu, C.-F.; Wang, J.-H. Fucoxanthin, a marine carotenoid present in brown seaweeds and diatoms: Metabolism and bioactivities relevant to human health. Mar. Drugs 2011, 9, 1806–1828. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sho, H. History and characteristics of Okinawan longevity food. Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. 2001, 10, 159–164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Das, S.K.; Hashimoto, T.; Baba, M.; Nishino, H.; Komoto, A.; Kanazawa, K. Japanese kelp (kombu) extract suppressed the formation of aberrant crypt foci in azoxymethane challenged mouse colon. J. Clin. Biochem. Nutr. 2006, 38, 119–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Funahashi, H.; Imai, T.; Mase, T.; Sekiya, M.; Yokoi, K.; Hayashi, H.; Shibata, A.; Hayashi, T.; Nishikawa, M.; Suda, N.; et al. Seaweed prevents breast cancer? Jpn. J. Cancer Res. 2001, 92, 483–487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Funahashi, H.; Imai, T.; Tanaka, Y.; Tsukamura, K.; Hayakawa, Y.; Kikumori, T.; Mase, T.; Itoh, T.; Nishikawa, M.; Hayashi, H.; et al. Wakame seaweed suppresses the proliferation of 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)-anthracene-induced mammary tumors in rats. Jpn. J. Cancer Res. 1999, 90, 922–927. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Okai, Y.; Higashi-okai, K.; Nakamura, S. Identification of heterogenous antimutagenic activities in the extract of edible brown seaweeds, Laminaria japonica (Makonbu) and Undaria pinnatifida (Wakame) by the umu gene expression system in Salmonella typhimurium (TA1535/pSKlO02). Mutat. Res. 1993, 303, 63–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Teas, J.; Vena, S.; Cone, D.L.; Irhimeh, M. The consumption of seaweed as a protective factor in the etiology of breast cancer: Proof of principle. J. Appl. Phycol. 2013, 25, 771–779. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nishino, H. Cancer chemoprevention by natural carotenoids and their related compounds. J. Cell. Biochem. Suppl. 1995, 22, 231–235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Okuzumi, J.; Nishino, H.; Murakoshi, M.; Iwashima, A.; Tanaka, Y.; Yamane, T.; Fujita, Y.; Takahashi, T. Inhibitory effects of fucoxanthin, a natural carotenoid, on N-myc expression and cell cycle progression in human malignant tumor cells. Cancer Lett. 1990, 55, 75–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Okuzumi, J.; Takahashi, T.; Yamanea, T.; Kitao, Y.; Inagake, M.; Ohya, K.; Nishino, H.; Tanaka, Y. Inhibitory effects of fucoxanthin , a natural carotenoid, on N-ethyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine-induced mouse duodenal carcinogenesis. Cancer Lett. 1993, 68, 159–168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, J.; Chen, S.; Xu, S.; Yu, X.; Ma, D.; Hu, X.; Cao, X. In vivo induction of apoptosis by fucoxanthin, a marine carotenoid, associated with down-regulating STAT3/EGFR signaling in sarcoma 180 (S180) xenografts-bearing mice. Mar. Drugs 2012, 10, 2055–2068. [Google Scholar]
- Kim, J.M.; Araki, S.; Kim, D.J.; Park, C.B.; Takasuka, N.; Baba-Toriyama, H.; Ota, T.; Nir, Z.; Khachik, F.; Shimidzu, N.; et al. Chemopreventive effects of carotenoids and curcumins on mouse colon carcinogenesis after 1,2-dimethylhydrazine initiation. Carcinogenesis 1998, 19, 81–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ishikawa, C.; Tafuku, S.; Kadekaru, T.; Sawada, S.; Tomita, M.; Okudaira, T.; Nakazato, T.; Toda, T.; Uchihara, J.-N.; Taira, N.; et al. Antiadult T-cell leukemia effects of brown algae fucoxanthin and its deacetylated product, fucoxanthinol. Int. J. Cancer 2008, 123, 2702–2712. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, K.-N.; Ahn, G.; Heo, S.-J.; Kang, S.-M.; Kang, M.-C.; Yang, H.-M.; Kim, D.; Roh, S.W.; Kim, S.-K.; Jeon, B.-T.; et al. Inhibition of tumor growth in vitro and in vivo by fucoxanthin against melanoma B16F10 cells. Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2013, 35, 39–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nomura, T.; Kikuchi, M.; Kubodera, A.; Kawakami, Y. Proton-donative antioxidant activity of fucoxanthin with 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). Biochem. Mol. Biol. Int. 1997, 42, 361–370. [Google Scholar]
- Sangeetha, R.K.; Bhaskar, N.; Baskaran, V. Comparative effects of β-carotene and fucoxanthin on retinol deficiency induced oxidative stress in rats. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 2009, 331, 59–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sachindra, N.M.; Sato, E.; Maeda, H.; Hosokawa, M.; Niwano, Y.; Kohno, M.; Miyashita, K. Radical scavenging and singlet oxygen quenching activity of marine carotenoid fucoxanthin and its metabolites. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2007, 55, 8516–8522. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sangeetha, R.K.; Bhaskar, N.; Baskaran, V. Fucoxanthin restrains oxidative stress induced by retinol deficiency through modulation of Na+K+-ATPase and antioxidant enzyme activities in rats. Eur. J. Nutr. 2008, 47, 432–441. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chandini, S.K.; Ganesan, P.; Bhaskar, N. In vitro antioxidant activities of three selected brown seaweeds of India. Food Chem. 2008, 107, 707–713. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kotake-Nara, E.; Kushiro, M.; Zhang, H.; Sugawara, T.; Miyashita, K.; Nagao, A. Carotenoids affect proliferation of human prostate cancer cells. J. Nutr. 2001, 131, 3303–3306. [Google Scholar]
- Kotake-Nara, E.; Terasaki, M.; Nagao, A. Characterization of apoptosis induced by fucoxanthin in human promyelocytic leukemia cells. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 2005, 69, 224–227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, K.-N.; Heo, S.-J.; Kang, S.-M.; Ahn, G.; Jeon, Y.-J. Fucoxanthin induces apoptosis in human leukemia HL-60 cells through a ROS-mediated Bcl-xL pathway. Toxicol. In Vitro 2010, 24, 1648–1654. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shimoda, H.; Tanaka, J.; Shan, S.-J.; Maoka, T. Anti-pigmentary activity of fucoxanthin and its influence on skin mRNA expression of melanogenic molecules. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 2010, 62, 1137–1145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Heo, S.-J.; Jeon, Y.-J. Protective effect of fucoxanthin isolated from Sargassumsiliquastrum on UV-B induced cell damage. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B: Biol. 2009, 95, 101–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ganesan, P.; Noda, K.; Manabe, Y.; Ohkubo, T.; Tanaka, Y.; Maoka, T.; Sugawara, T.; Hirata, T. Siphonaxanthin, a marine carotenoid from green algae, effectively induces apoptosis in human leukemia (HL-60) cells. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2011, 1810, 497–503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hosokawa, M.; Kudo, M.; Maeda, H.; Kohno, H.; Tanaka, T.; Miyashita, K. Fucoxanthin induces apoptosis and enhances the antiproliferative effect of the PPARγ ligand, troglitazone, on colon cancer cells. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2004, 1675, 113–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jaswir, I.; Noviendri, D.; Salleh, H.M.; Taher, M.; Miyashita, K. Isolation of fucoxanthin and fatty acids analysis of Padina australis and cytotoxic effect of fucoxanthin on human lung cancer (H1299) cell lines. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2011, 10, 18855–18862. [Google Scholar]
- Liu, C.-L.; Huang, Y.-S.; Hosokawa, M.; Miyashita, K.; Hu, M.-L. Inhibition of proliferation of a hepatoma cell line by fucoxanthin in relation to cell cycle arrest and enhanced gap junctional intercellular communication. Chem.-Biol. Interact. 2009, 182, 165–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mise, T.; Yasumoto, T. Simultaneous treatment of cancer cells lines with the anticancer drug cisplatin and the antioxidant fucoxanthin. Br. J. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 2011, 2, 127–131. [Google Scholar]
- Yamamoto, K.; Ishikawa, C.; Katano, H.; Yasumoto, T.; Mori, N. Fucoxanthin and its deacetylated product, fucoxanthinol, induce apoptosis of primary effusion lymphomas. Cancer Lett. 2011, 300, 225–234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Satomi, Y.; Nishino, H. Fucoxanthin, a natural carotenoid, induces G1 arrest and GADD45 gene expression in human cancer cells. In Vivo 2007, 21, 305–310. [Google Scholar]
- Hosokawa, M.; Wanezaki, S.; Miyauchi, K.; Kurihara, H.; Kohno, H.; Kawabata, J.; Odashima, S.; Takahashi, K. Apoptosis-inducing effect of fucoxanthin on human leukemia cell HL-60. Food Sci. Technol. Res. 1999, 5, 243–246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kotake-Nara, E.; Sugawara, T.; Nagao, A. Antiproliferative effect of neoxanthin and fucoxanthin on cultured cells. Fish. Sci. 2005, 75, 459–461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kotake-Nara, E.; Asai, A.; Nagao, A. Neoxanthin and fucoxanthin induce apoptosis in PC-3 human prostate cancer cells. Cancer Lett. 2005, 220, 75–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moreau, D.; Tomasoni, C.; Jacquot, C.; Kaas, R.; Le Guedes, R.; Cadoret, J.-P.; Muller-Feuga, A.; Kontiza, I.; Vagias, C.; Roussis, V.; et al. Cultivated microalgae and the carotenoid fucoxanthin from Odontella aurita as potent anti-proliferative agents in bronchopulmonary and epithelial cell lines. Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2006, 22, 97–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Matsumoto, M.; Hosokawa, M.; Matsukawa, N.; Hagio, M.; Shinoki, A.; Nishimukai, M.; Miyashita, K.; Yajima, T.; Hara, H. Suppressive effects of the marine carotenoids, fucoxanthin and fucoxanthinol on triglyceride absorption in lymph duct-cannulated rats. Eur. J. Nutr. 2010, 49, 243–249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sugawara, T.; Baskaran, V.; Tsuzuki, W.; Nagao, A. Brown algae fucoxanthin is hydrolyzed to fucoxanthinol during absorption by Caco-2 human intestinal cells and mice. J. Nutr. 2002, 132, 946–951. [Google Scholar]
- De la Mare, J.-A.; Sterrenberg, J.N.; Sukhthankar, M.G.; Chiwakata, M.T.; Beukes, D.R.; Blatch, G.L.; Edkins, A.L. Assessment of potential anti-cancer stem cell activity of marine algal compounds using and in vitro mammosphere assay. Cancer Cell Int. 2013, 13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Asai, A.; Sugawara, T.; Ono, H.; Nagao, A. Biotransformation of fucoxanthinol into amarouciaxanthin A in mice and HepG2 cells: Formation and cytotoxicity of fucoxanthin metabolites. Drug Metab. Dispos. 2004, 32, 205–211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Asai, A.; Yonekura, L.; Nagao, A. Low bioavailability of dietary epoxyxanthophylls in humans. Br. J. Nutr. 2008, 100, 273–277. [Google Scholar]
- Hashimoto, T.; Ozaki, Y.; Mizuno, M.; Yoshida, M.; Nishitani, Y.; Azuma, T.; Komoto, A.; Maoka, T.; Tanini, Y.; Kanazawa, K. Pharmacokinetics of fucoxanthinol in human plasma after the oral administration of kombu extract. Br. J. Nutr. 2012, 107, 1566–1569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Satomi, Y.; Nishino, H. Implication of mitogen-activated protein kinase in the induction of G1 cell cycle arrest and gadd45 expression by the carotenoid fucoxanthin in human cancer cells. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2009, 1790, 260–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Satomi, Y. Fucoxanthin Induces GADD45A Expression and G 1 Arrest with SAPK/JNK Activation in LNCap Human Prostate Cancer Cells. Anticancer Res. 2012, 32, 807–814. [Google Scholar]
- Das, S.K.; Hashimoto, T.; Shimizu, K.; Yoshida, T.; Sakai, T.; Sowa, Y.; Komoto, A.; Kanazawa, K. Fucoxanthin induces cell cycle arrest at G0/G1 phase in human colon carcinoma cells through up-regulation of p21WAF1/Cip1. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2005, 1726, 328–335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Das, S.K.; Hashimoto, T.; Kanazawa, K. Growth inhibition of human hepatic carcinoma HepG2 cells by fucoxanthin is associated with down-regulation of cyclin D. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2008, 1780, 743–749. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yu, R.; Hu, X.; Xu, S.; Jiang, Z.; Yang, W. Effects of fucoxanthin on proliferation and apoptosis in human gastric adenocarcinoma MGC-803 cells via JAK/STAT signal pathway. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2011, 657, 10–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Muthuirulappan, S.; Francis, S.P. Anti-cancer mechanism and possibility of nano-suspension formulation for a marine algae product fucoxanthin. Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev. 2013, 14, 2213–2216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Murakami, C.; Takemura, M.; Sugiyama, Y.; Kamisuki, S.; Asahara, H.; Kawasaki, M.; Ishidoh, T.; Linn, S.; Yoshida, S.; Sugawara, F.; et al. Vitamin A-related compounds, all-trans retinal and retinoic acids, selectively inhibit activities of mammalian replicative DNA polymerases. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2002, 1574, 85–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Konishi, I.; Hosokawa, M.; Sashima, T.; Kobayashi, H.; Miyashita, K. Halocynthiaxanthin and fucoxanthinol isolated from Halocynthia roretzi induce apoptosis in human leukemia, breast and colon cancer cells. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Part C 2006, 142, 53–59. [Google Scholar]
- Zhang, Z.; Zhang, P.; Hamada, M.; Takahashi, S.; Xing, G.; Liu, J.; Sugiura, N. Potential chemoprevention effect of dietary fucoxanthin on urinary bladder cancer EJ-1 cell line. Oncol. Rep. 2008, 20, 1099–1103. [Google Scholar]
- Deryugina, E.I.; Quigley, J.P. Matrix metalloproteinases and tumor metastasis. Cancer Metastasis Rev. 2006, 25, 9–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chung, T.W.; Choi, H.-J.; Lee, J.-Y.; Jeong, H.-S.; Kim, C.-H.; Joo, M.; Choi, J.-Y.; Han, C.-W.; Kim, S.-Y.; Choi, J.-S.; et al. Marine algal fucoxanthin inhibits the metastatic potential of cancer cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2013, 439, 580–585. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ola, M.S.; Nawaz, M.; Ahsan, H. Role of Bcl-2 family proteins and caspases in the regulation of apoptosis. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 2011, 351, 41–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Adams, J.M.; Cory, S. Bcl-2-regulated apoptosis: Mechanism and therapeutic potential. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 2007, 19, 488–496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nakazawa, Y.; Sashima, T.; Hosokawa, M.; Miyashita, K. Comparative evaluation of growth inhibitory effect of stereoisomers of fucoxanthin in human cancer cell lines. J. Funct. Foods 2009, 1, 88–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, C.-L.; Lim, Y.-P.; Hu, M.-L. Fucoxanthin enhances cisplatin-induced cytotoxicity via NFκB-mediated pathway and downregulates DNA repair gene expression in human hepatoma HepG2 cells. Mar. Drugs 2013, 11, 50–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Johnson, G.L.; Lapadat, R. Mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways mediated by ERK, JNK, and p38 Protein Kinases. Science 2013, 298, 1911–1912. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cowan, K.J.; Storey, K.B. Mitogen-activated protein kinases: New signaling pathways functioning in cellular responses to environmental stress. J. Exp. Biol. 2003, 206, 1107–1115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zerbini, L.F.; Wang, Y.; Czibere, A.; Correa, R.G.; Cho, J.-Y.; Ijiri, K.; Wei, W.; Joseph, M.; Gu, X.; Grall, F.; et al. NF-κB-mediated repression of growth arrest- and DNA-damage-inducible proteins 45α and γ is essential for cancer cell survival. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2004, 101, 13618–13623. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liebermann, D.; Tront, J.S.; Sha, X.; Mukherjee, K.; Mohamed-Hadley, A.; Hoffman, B. Gadd45 stress sensors in malignancy and leukemia. Crit. Rev. Oncog. 2011, 16, 129–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dolcet, X.; Llobet, D.; Pallares, J.; Matias-Guiu, X. NF-κB in development and progression of human cancer. Virchows Arch. 2005, 446, 475–482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Viatour, P.; Merville, M.-P.; Bours, V.; Chariot, A. Phosphorylation of NF-κB and IκB proteins: Implications in cancer and inflammation. Trends Biochem. Sci. 2005, 30, 43–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zorbas, H.; Keppler, B.K. Cisplatin damage: Are DNA repair proteins saviors or traitors to the cell? ChemBioChem 2005, 6, 1157–1566. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cepeda, V.; Fuertes, M.A.; Castilla, J.; Alonso, C.; Quevedo, C.; Pérez, J.M. Biochemical mechanisms of cisplatin cytotoxicity. Anti-Cancer Agents Med. Chem. 2007, 7, 3–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Klein, K.; Zanger, U.M. Pharmacogenomics of cytochrome P450 3A4: Recent progress toward the “missing heritability” problem. Front. Genet. 2013, 4, 1–15. [Google Scholar]
- Fahmi, O.A.; Kish, M.; Boldt, S.; Obach, R.S. Cytochrome P450 3A4 mRNA is a more reliable marker than CYP3A4 activity for detecting pregnane X receptor-activated induction of drug-metabolizing enzymes. Drug Metab. Dispos. 2010, 38, 1605–1611. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, Y.; Nie, D. Pregnane X receptor and its potential role in drug resistance in cancer treatment. Recent Pat. Anti-Cancer Drug Discov. 2009, 4, 19–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Miki, Y.; Suzuki, T.; Kitada, K.; Yabuki, N.; Shibuya, R.; Moriya, T.; Ishida, T.; Ohuchi, N.; Blumberg, B.; Sasano, H. Expression of the steroid and xenobiotic receptor and its possible target gene, organic anion transporting polypeptide-A, in human breast carcinoma. Cancer Res. 2006, 66, 535–542. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, C.-L.; Lim, Y.-P.; Hu, M.-L. Fucoxanthin attenuates rifampin-induced cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) and multiple drug resistance 1 (MDR1) gene expression through pregnane X receptor (PXR)-mediated pathways in human hepatoma HepG2 and colon adenocarcinoma LS174T cells. Mar. Drugs 2012, 10, 242–257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Evans, W.H.; Martin, P.E.M. Gap junctions: Structure and function (Review). Mol. Membr. Biol. 2002, 19, 121–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lampe, P.D.; Lau, A.F. The effects of connexin phosphorylation on gap junctional communication. Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. 2004, 36, 1171–1186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Willecke, K.; Eiberger, J.; Degen, J.; Eckardt, D.; Romualdi, A.; Güldenagel, M.; Deutsch, U.; Söhl, G. Structural and functional diversity of connexin genes in the mouse and human genome. Biol. Chem. 2002, 383, 725–737. [Google Scholar]
- Zhang, L.-X.; Cooney, R.V.; Bertram, J.S. Carotenoids enhance gap junctional communication and inhibit lipid peroxidation in C3H/10T1/2 cells: Relationship to their cancer chemopreventive action. Carcinogenesis 1991, 12, 2109–2114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hix, L.M.; Lockwood, S.F.; Bertram, J.S. Upregulation of connexin 43 protein expression and increased gap junctional communication by water soluble disodium disuccinate astaxanthin derivatives. Cancer Lett. 2004, 211, 25–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aust, O.; Ale-Agha, N.; Zhang, L.; Wollersen, H.; Sies, H.; Stahl, W. Lycopene oxidation product enhances gap junctional communication. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2003, 41, 1399–1407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sugawara, T.; Matsubara, K.; Akagi, R.; Mori, M.; Hirata, T. Antiangiogenic activity of brown algae fucoxanthin and its deacetylated product, fucoxanthinol. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2006, 54, 9805–9810. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
© 2013 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
Share and Cite
Kumar, S.R.; Hosokawa, M.; Miyashita, K. Fucoxanthin: A Marine Carotenoid Exerting Anti-Cancer Effects by Affecting Multiple Mechanisms. Mar. Drugs 2013, 11, 5130-5147. https://doi.org/10.3390/md11125130
Kumar SR, Hosokawa M, Miyashita K. Fucoxanthin: A Marine Carotenoid Exerting Anti-Cancer Effects by Affecting Multiple Mechanisms. Marine Drugs. 2013; 11(12):5130-5147. https://doi.org/10.3390/md11125130
Chicago/Turabian StyleKumar, Sangeetha Ravi, Masashi Hosokawa, and Kazuo Miyashita. 2013. "Fucoxanthin: A Marine Carotenoid Exerting Anti-Cancer Effects by Affecting Multiple Mechanisms" Marine Drugs 11, no. 12: 5130-5147. https://doi.org/10.3390/md11125130