Coverage Hole Recovery in Hybrid Sensor Networks Based on Key Perceptual Intersections for Emergency Communications
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Related Work
2.1. Static Sensor Networks
2.2. Mobile Sensor Networks
2.3. Hybrid Sensor Networks
3. System Model
3.1. Network Model
3.2. Sensing Model
3.3. Energy Model
3.4. Hole Model
3.5. Network Scenario
4. Proposed Methodology
4.1. Network Unit
Algorithm 1. Network unit |
Input: i: row number, j: column number, L: length of the network, C: number of network units, n: number of nodes |
Output: C, Aij 1: The network density is calculated 2: Density = n/L2 3: The number of units is calculated according to the Density 4: Each unit is named as Aij 5: The side size of each unit in the network is calculated by 6: The base station notifies (x0, y0) and Cellsize to all network nodes 7: for (s = 1; s ≤ n; s++) do 8: Identifying unit number in which it is located for nodes by 9: Node s sends a hello packet to the neighbor nodes 10: end for 11: if (The node has the most remaining energy and closest to the center of the unit) then 12: Sends a packet and declares itself a unit agent 13: else 14: Waits to receive the unit agent notification packet 15: end if |
4.2. Detecting Holes
Algorithm 2. Detecting Holes |
Input: k: number of pixels covered by the unit, n: number of nodes, d: Euclidean distance, C: number of network units, Rs: sensing radius |
Output: Coverageratesij 1: Information = 0 2: for (s = 1; s ≤ C; s++) do 3: for (k = 1; d ≤ Rs; k++) do 4: All the entries of a row k in the Info table are OR together and recorded in CoNO column 5: end for 6: Calculate the coverage of each unit (Coverageratesij) 7: end for 8: for (s = 1; s ≤ C; s++) do 9: if (Coverageratesij < 90%) then 10: This unit has holes. 11: else 12: There are no holes in this unit. 13: end if |
4.3. Hole Recovery
Algorithm 3. Hole Recovery |
Input: z: number of coverage hole, m: number of mobile nodes, n: the number of key perceptual point |
Output: New coverage of Unit Sij 1: Coverageratesij < 90% 2: if z ≤ m then 3: for (z = 1; z ≤ m; z++) do 4: The mobile node is directly sent to the coordinates for hole recovery by . 5: else 6: for (z = 1; z > m; z++) do the highest priority hole is selected according to Particle Swarm Optimization algorithm 7: The priority of holes depends on three parameters, including Dbs,h, Coverageratesij, and Overlapratesn. 8: end for 9: end if |
5. Simulation Experiment and Result Analysis
5.1. Comparison of Energy Consumption
5.2. Comparison of Average Energy Consumption
5.3. Average Percentage of Holes Repaired
5.4. Average Mobility Distance of Mobile Nodes
5.5. Coverage Ratio with Different Number of Failed Nodes
5.6. Average Coverage at Different Simulation Times
5.7. Average Coverage
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Coordinate | S1 | S2 | S3 | S4 | S5 | … | Sn | CoNO |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(x1, y1) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
… | ||||||||
(x40, y40) | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | |
… | ||||||||
(x100, y100) | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | |
… | ||||||||
(xk−1, yk−1) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
(xk, yk) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Symbol | Attribute | Value |
---|---|---|
O | monitoring area | 200 ∗ 200 m2 |
Deploy | deployment method | Random |
L | length of the network | 200 |
Si | a sensor node | 180 |
Aij | represents a unit | |
C | number of units | Depends on the number of nodes |
Rs | sensor i sensing radius | 30 m |
Rc | sensor i communication radius | 60 m |
Vi | movement speed of sensor i | 20 m/s |
n | number of static sensor nodes | 150 |
m | number of mobile sensor nodes | 30 |
Em | initial energy of the mobile node | 5 J |
Ec | mobile energy consumption | 0.1 J/m |
SIM | simulation time | 150 s |
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Li, H.; Sun, S.; Dong, C.; Qi, Q.; Zhao, C.; Fu, Z.; Yu, P.; Liu, J. Coverage Hole Recovery in Hybrid Sensor Networks Based on Key Perceptual Intersections for Emergency Communications. Sensors 2025, 25, 4217. https://doi.org/10.3390/s25134217
Li H, Sun S, Dong C, Qi Q, Zhao C, Fu Z, Yu P, Liu J. Coverage Hole Recovery in Hybrid Sensor Networks Based on Key Perceptual Intersections for Emergency Communications. Sensors. 2025; 25(13):4217. https://doi.org/10.3390/s25134217
Chicago/Turabian StyleLi, He, Shixian Sun, Chuang Dong, Qinglei Qi, Cong Zhao, Zufeng Fu, Peng Yu, and Jiajia Liu. 2025. "Coverage Hole Recovery in Hybrid Sensor Networks Based on Key Perceptual Intersections for Emergency Communications" Sensors 25, no. 13: 4217. https://doi.org/10.3390/s25134217
APA StyleLi, H., Sun, S., Dong, C., Qi, Q., Zhao, C., Fu, Z., Yu, P., & Liu, J. (2025). Coverage Hole Recovery in Hybrid Sensor Networks Based on Key Perceptual Intersections for Emergency Communications. Sensors, 25(13), 4217. https://doi.org/10.3390/s25134217