LiDAR Inertial Odometry Based on Indexed Point and Delayed Removal Strategy in Highly Dynamic Environments
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Localization and Mapping Based on LiDAR and Inertial
1.2. Dynamic Point Removal Approaches in SLAM
- Voxel map-based approaches: These approaches construct a voxel map and track the emitted ray from LiDAR. When the end point of a LiDAR ray hits a voxel, it is considered to be occupied. Moreover, the LiDAR beam is regarded as traveling across free voxels. The voxel probability in the voxel map can be computed in this way. However, these methods are computationally expensive. Even with engineering acceleration in the latest method [30], processing a large number of 3D points online is still difficult [31]. In addition, these methods need highly accurate localization information, which is a challenge for SLAM. In [32], an offline approach for labeling dynamic points in LiDAR scans based on occupancy maps is introduced, and the labeled results are used as training datasets for deep learning-based LiDAR SLAM methods.
- Visibility-based approaches: In contrast to building a voxel map, the visibility-based approaches just need to compare the visibility difference rather than maintaining a large voxel map [33,34,35]. Specifically, the observed point should be considered dynamic if the view from the previously observed point blocks out the view from the current point. RF-LIO [36] proposed an adaptive dynamic object rejection method based on removert, which can perform SLAM in real time.
- Learning-based method: The performance of semantic segmentation and detection methods based on deep learning has significantly improved. Ruchti et al. [37] integrated a neural network and an octree map to estimate the occupancy probability. Point clouds in a grid with a low occupancy probability are considered dynamic points. Chen et al. [38] proposed a fast-moving object segmentation network to divide the LiDAR scan into dynamic and still objects. The network is able to operate even faster than the LiDAR frequency. Wang et al. [39] proposed a 3D neural network, SANet, and added it to LOAM for semantic segmentation of dynamic objects. Jeong et al. [40] proposed 2D LiDAR odometry and mapping based on CNN, which used the fault detection of scan matching in dynamic environments.
1.3. New Contribution
- An online and effective dynamic point detection method at the spatial dimension is optimized and integrated. This approach fully utilizes the height information of the ground in the point clouds to detect dynamic points.
- An indexed point-based dynamic point propagation and removal algorithm is proposed to remove more dynamic points in a local map along the spatial and temporal dimensions and detect dynamic points in historical keyframes.
- In the LiDAR odometry module, we propose a delayed removal strategy for keyframes. Additionally, a lite slide window method is utilized to optimize the poses from scan-to-map module. We assign dynamic weights to the well-matched LiDAR feature points in the historical keyframes in the sliding window.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. IMU Pre-Integration
2.2. Indexed Point Initialization
2.3. Dynamic Point Detection
2.3.1. Problem Definiton
2.3.2. Pseudo Occupancy-Based Removal Method
2.4. Dynamic Point Propagation and Removal
Algorithm 1: Dynamic Point Propagation and Removal Algorithm |
2.5. LiDAR Odometry
2.5.1. Feature-Based Scan-to-Map Matching
2.5.2. Front-End Optimization
3. Results
3.1. Experimental Setup
3.2. Dynamic Observations Number Analysis
3.3. Comparison of Dynamic Removal Strategies for Local Map
3.4. Comparison of Delayed Removal Strategy for Keyframe
3.5. Results on Low- and High-Dynamic Datasets
3.6. Runtime Performance Analysis
4. Discussion
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Dataset | Trajectory Length (m) | Dynamic Level | Scale Level |
---|---|---|---|
UNHK-Data20190428 [45] | 1800 | Low | Medium |
UNHK-TST [45] | 3640 | High | Medium |
UNHK-Mongkok [45] | 4860 | High | Medium |
UNHK-Whampoa [45] | 4510 | High | Medium |
ULCA-MarketStreet [46] | 5690 | High | Large |
ULCA-RussianHill [46] | 3570 | High | Medium |
Sequence/ATE | DON1 | DON2 | DON3 | DON4 | DON5 | DON6 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
UNHK-Data20190428 [45] | 6.55 | 6.36 | 5.96 | 6.55 | 6.34 | 6.43 |
UNHK-TST [45] | 7.51 | 4.86 | 4.27 | 4.70 | 5.20 | 7.39 |
ULCA-MarktStreet [46] | 86.69 | 87.500 | 49.26 | 49.98 | 49.75 | 86.05 |
Sequence/ATE | LIO-SAM + Spatial | LIO-SAM + Spatial + Temporal |
---|---|---|
UNHK-Data20190428 [45] | 6.55 | 5.96 |
UNHK-TST [45] | 7.51 | 4.27 |
ULCA-MarktStreet [46] | 86.69 | 49.26 |
Sequence/ATE | Ours + No Delayed Removal | Ours + Delayed Removal |
---|---|---|
UNHK-Data20190428 [45] | 5.96 | 5.99 |
UNHK-TST [45] | 4.86 | 1.06 |
ULCA-MarktStreet [46] | 49.26 | 28.02 |
Sequence/ATE | Faster-LIO | FAST-LIO | LIO-SAM | Ours |
---|---|---|---|---|
UNHK-Data20190428 [45] | 7.53 | 7.46 | 6.55 | 5.96 |
UNHK-TST [45] | 9.81 | 9.34 | 7.51 | 1.06 |
UNHK-Mongkok [45] | 10.45 | 10.65 | 8.89 | 3.45 |
UNHK-Whampoa [45] | 5.13 | 5.38 | 3.32 | 0.85 |
ULCA-MarktStreet [46] | - | - | 86.69 | 28.02 |
ULCA-RussianHill [46] | 100.56 | 110.37 | 60.35 | 15.34 |
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Wu, W.; Wang, W. LiDAR Inertial Odometry Based on Indexed Point and Delayed Removal Strategy in Highly Dynamic Environments. Sensors 2023, 23, 5188. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23115188
Wu W, Wang W. LiDAR Inertial Odometry Based on Indexed Point and Delayed Removal Strategy in Highly Dynamic Environments. Sensors. 2023; 23(11):5188. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23115188
Chicago/Turabian StyleWu, Weizhuang, and Wanliang Wang. 2023. "LiDAR Inertial Odometry Based on Indexed Point and Delayed Removal Strategy in Highly Dynamic Environments" Sensors 23, no. 11: 5188. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23115188
APA StyleWu, W., & Wang, W. (2023). LiDAR Inertial Odometry Based on Indexed Point and Delayed Removal Strategy in Highly Dynamic Environments. Sensors, 23(11), 5188. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23115188