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Review

Trichoderma in Sustainable Agriculture and the Challenges Related to Its Effectiveness

by
Karina Gutiérrez-Moreno
1,
Ana I. Olguín-Martínez
2,
Amelia C. Montoya-Martínez
2 and
Sergio de los Santos-Villalobos
2,*
1
Unidad de Genómica Avanzada, Cinvestav de Irapuato, Km 9.6 Libramiento Norte Carretera Irapuato-León, Irapuato 36824, Guanajuato, Mexico
2
Laboratorio de Biotecnología del Recurso Microbiano, Departamento de Ciencias Agronómicas y Veterinarias, Instituto Tecnológico de Sonora (ITSON), 5 de Febrero 818 Sur, Colonia Centro, Ciudad Obregón 85000, Sonora, Mexico
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Diversity 2025, 17(10), 734; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17100734 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 14 August 2025 / Revised: 14 October 2025 / Accepted: 17 October 2025 / Published: 19 October 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Microbial Diversity and Culture Collections)
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Abstract

Fungi from the genus Trichoderma have been extensively studied and used as biological control agents (BCAs) because of their versatile mechanisms of action. These include triggering systemic resistance, directly inhibiting pathogens, promoting plant growth, enhancing tolerance to abiotic stress, and producing auxins. However, the widespread application of the most studied Trichoderma strains has been limited by discrepancies between their potential results observed in controlled environments and the outcomes in greenhouses and field conditions. These differences are associated with context dependency, influenced by strain-specific traits, crop genotype, soil properties, and environmental factors. In this review, we examine the mechanisms of action, current challenges, and opportunities, emphasizing the importance of local strategies and detailed characterization of native strains to boost the effectiveness of Trichoderma-based products in sustainable agriculture.

1. Introduction

The principal objective of sustainable agriculture is to help meet the current and future food demand. Key strategies in sustainable agriculture include reducing chemical inputs, conserving natural resources, enhancing biodiversity, and adopting eco-friendly pest and disease management tools [1]. Several agricultural practices are employed to achieve sustainability and produce organic crops. Nevertheless, one of the most widely used and accepted methods is the use of biological control agents (BCAs) [2,3], which are fundamentally based on microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses that suppress plant diseases through various mechanisms [4,5], including competition, antibiosis, and parasitism [6,7].
The genus Trichoderma is a widely distributed soil fungus recognized for its multifunctional roles in agriculture, including antagonism against a broad spectrum of phytopathogens, induction of systemic resistance in plants, improvement of plant growth and nutrient uptake, and tolerance to abiotic stresses [8,9,10]. One of the key mechanisms behind Trichoderma-mediated biological control is the activation of plant defense responses through interactions with fungi [11]. Their metabolic diversity and ecological plasticity make them particularly attractive for use in various cropping systems and environmental conditions. Furthermore, several strains of Trichoderma, e.g., T. harzianum, T. asperellum, T. atroviride, T. virens, T. longibrachiatum, have been successfully formulated into commercial biofungicides and biofertilizers, representing almost 50–60% of fungal BCAs [12], significantly contributing to integrated pest management and sustainable crop production systems [13,14,15].
However, few studies have focused on the translational gap, i.e., the challenges and limitations associated with using Trichoderma spp. under both controlled and field conditions, as well as the factors that influence the efficacy of Trichoderma spp., including strain specificity, crop type, soil characteristics, and environmental conditions.
This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current understanding of Trichoderma’s limitations in field conditions. Additionally, it examines ways to improve its performance through formulation technologies and integrated strategies. It highlights the importance of conducting scaling studies and assessing contextual factors that may influence Trichoderma’s effectiveness through systematic review and meta-analysis.

2. Materials and Methods

A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted using the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) methodology [16].

2.1. Information Sources and Search Strategy

We consulted the following databases to gather our information: Web of Science, Mendeley Web, and Google Scholar. We focused on book chapters, reviews, and original research articles. Our keywords included “Trichoderma × pesticides × fungicides × insecticides”, “Trichoderma × host-genotype”, “Trichoderma × mycoparasitism × antibiosis × volatiles × antagonism”, “Trichoderma × soil type”, “Trichoderma × field”, “Trichoderma products”, “Trichoderma strains inoculant”, “Trichoderma field formulations”, and “Trichoderma mechanisms of action”. We also focused on the period from 2016 to 2025.

2.2. Data Collection Process and Data Synthesis

Search results were exported to Mendeley Version 2.137.0 (Elsevier Ltd., Irapuato, Mexico). We searched for duplicates and removed them. We evaluated titles, abstracts, and discussion sections to identify the most promising articles. Then, Excel matrices were used to compare mechanisms of action assessed under controlled conditions, perform tests under field conditions, evaluate limiting factors in both controlled conditions and the field, and identify the most commonly used Trichoderma strains in Trichoderma-based products.

2.3. Criteria for Selection

We chose the articles included in this review based on the following criteria:
  • Articles with titles and abstracts that really include the topics of interest.
  • Data articles with strain, species, environmental conditions, soil type, host genotype, strain genotype, agrochemical dosages, and comparisons with other microorganisms.
  • Review articles with relevant discussions.
  • Articles with relevant experiments and data were added during the systematic review.
  • We discarded duplicate articles.

3. Mechanisms of Action of Trichoderma

It is currently known that Trichoderma can use several mechanisms to fight phytopathogenic fungi. Besides competition for space and nutrients, the main ones are mycoparasitism and antibiosis, which directly impact phytopathogens in both in vitro and in vivo conditions [17,18]. However, other mechanisms have also been studied. Other mechanisms of action that have been studied for decades are induced systemic resistance (ISR) [19]. The plant’s systemic resistance is induced when Trichoderma spp. degrade the root cell wall and colonize, activating the plant’s primary defenses in a process called priming [20].
Because mycoparasitism is the most effective method to lower pathogen levels, disease suppression by Trichoderma mycoparasitic strains is stronger than that achieved through ISR or antibiosis [21,22]. Please see Figure 1.

3.1. Mycoparasitism

Mycoparasitism is a complex physiological process involving microbial competition and the production of various enzymes and secondary metabolites [23,24,25]. As mentioned before, this mechanism is the most effective and has been extensively studied, with 81 recent articles included in the systematic review we conducted. Recent research suggests that in some cases, Trichoderma may exhibit hemibiotrophic behavior, interacting with the host fungus without causing extensive damage and enabling a temporary coexistence in which it gains nourishment and even distinguishes between fungal partners and plant-pathogenic fungi [26] (see Figure 2).
A key aspect of Trichoderma’s mycoparasitism is the production of hydrolytic enzymes, including chitinases [28], β-glucanases [23,29], and proteases. These enzymes are essential for the degradation of cellular components of the pathogenic fungus, facilitating colonization by Trichoderma. For instance, chitinase ECH42 has been identified as a virulence factor that can boost Trichoderma’s ability to parasitize other fungi. Additionally, it has been shown that overexpressing specific virulence-related genes can increase mycoparasitism levels in various Trichoderma strains [30].

3.2. Antibiosis

Antibiosis is a key biocontrol mechanism employed by Trichoderma to inhibit the growth of pathogens in agriculture. We included 30 recent references that cover antibiosis as a role of Trichoderma in biological control. This process depends on the production of secondary metabolites with antifungal and antibacterial properties, which directly target competing microorganisms [31,32]. Antibiosis also contributes to triggering systemic resistance in plants [33].
The antibiotic metabolites produced by Trichoderma include compounds such as peptaibols, terpenoids, and pyrones, which have demonstrated strong inhibitory effects against phytopathogenic fungi. For example, Tamandegani et al., [34] evaluated the changes in peptaibol profiles of Trichoderma asperellum and T. longibrachiatum during confrontation (in vitro) with Fusarium moniliforme, F. culmorum, F. graminearum, a mixture of F. oxysporum species, Alternaria solani, and Rhizoctonia solani. Detected that the highest amount of peptaibols was produced during the mixture of T. asperellum and F. oxysporum species, concluding that the interaction between Trichoderma and the phytopathogens influenced peptaibol production.
Among other metabolites, Gao et al. [35] evaluated the terpenoids from Trichoderma atroviride RR-dl-3-9 in confrontation with Fusarium graminearum 4A1F, finding that harzianone, trichoacorenol, and trichoacorenol B were the predominant terpenoids found in individual Trichoderma culture. However, trichoacorenol was not found in the co-culture with F. graminearum.
On the other hand, one of the most studied secondary metabolites, classified also as a volatile organic compound (VOC) in Trichoderma, is 6-pentyl-α-pyrone (6-PP), a compound with antifungal activity that inhibits spore germination and mycelial growth of various pathogenic species [36,37]. Hao et al. [38] demonstrated that the application of this VOC in nutrient solution for tomato cultivation inhibited the F. oxysporum HF-26 growth with 70.71% efficacy. Additionally, some Trichoderma strains have been identified to produce volatile antibiotics that can act remotely, reducing the spread of pathogens in the rhizosphere ecosystem [39]. Some Trichoderma metabolites can activate plant defense mechanisms, promoting the production of phytoalexins and pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins [40]. This approach enhances crop protection against future infections, boosting their resistance to various diseases.

3.3. Induction of Systemic Resistance

The induction of systemic resistance in plants is a phenomenon that has become highly important in the field of plant pathology and biological disease control. In our systematic review, we included almost 50 articles with the keywords ‘Trichoderma × ISR’ or ‘Trichoderma × systemic resistance’.
During ISR, Trichoderma activates the synthesis of PR proteins. Some Trichoderma strains, like T. pubescens Tp21, have been shown to elicit induced systemic resistance against Rhizoctonia solani in tomato plants by activating three defense-related genes: PAL, CHS, and HQT [41]. Evidence suggests that T. virens, in combination with Pseudomonas chlororaphis, can lessen the severity of diseases caused by pathogens such as Colletotrichum graminicola in maize, and T. virens triggers ISR to insect pests, such as fall armyworm [42].
Additionally, the mechanism of action of Trichoderma that has been most consistently demonstrated in soil and during interaction with plants is the triggering of ISR, evaluating the expression of defense-related genes and defense response pathways [43,44]. Galletti et al. [44] investigated the systemic resistance response in maize plants to Fusarium verticillioides, using two Trichoderma gamsii isolates (IMO5 and B21). Their research concluded that the mechanisms of action were strain-specific, with IMO5 enhancing the expression of ZmLOX10, ZmAOS, and ZmHPL genes, while B21 enhanced ZmPR1 and ZmPR5 genes. On the other hand, Singh et al. [43] evaluated the trigger of defense-related enzymes using T. harzianum and T. asperellum in individual assays and in combination on brinjal against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, finding that the activity of the enzymes Phenylalanine Ammonia Lyase, Peroxidase, and Polyphenol Oxidase was higher than the activity of the other evaluated enzymes.
Since defense-related genes and enzymes are easier to evaluate in plants than measuring the mycoparasitism of other fungal communities by Trichoderma spp., ISR is more commonly used in in planta tests.

3.4. Plant Growth Promotion

The promotion of plant growth by Trichoderma relies on several interconnected mechanisms that have been extensively studied. About 200 articles, including review articles, with the keywords ‘Trichoderma and/or plant growth’, were included in our systematic review.
Trichoderma can produce hormones like auxins, which are essential for plant growth and development [45]. For example, Illescas et al. [45] demonstrated that some Trichoderma strains like T. virens T49, T. longibrachiatum T68, T. spirale T75, and T. harzianum T115 produce a diverse array of phytohormones such as gibberellins Ga1 and Ga4, abscisic acid, salicylic acid, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), and various cytokinins. These vary depending on the strain and culture medium. They also showed that applying the medium where these strains were grown to wheat plants could be related to their water stress tolerance. Another important mechanism is the production of vitamins. These vitamins not only improve plant health but also support key metabolic processes. Such metabolites can boost the effectiveness of plant growth under optimal conditions, making plants stronger and more resilient [46]. Furthermore, Trichoderma has proven effective as an agent for nutrient solubilization in the soil, e.g., phosphorus solubilization by some T. harzianum strains that helped promote tomato plant growth, increasing chlorophyll content, shoot length, and fresh and dry weights [47].
The multifaceted action of Trichoderma as a plant growth promoter depends on the production of phytohormones, nutrient solubilization, improved water absorption, and the strengthening of plant defenses [48,49]. This makes it a valuable ally in modern agriculture, helping to increase production and promote the sustainability of agricultural systems. Research on Trichoderma also shows that success in disease control cannot be attributed to a single mode of action; instead, it results from a combination of traits that work synergistically under field conditions. In this context, optimizing how Trichoderma coexists with other beneficial bacteria or fungi in the rhizosphere is crucial, as it can affect microbial community dynamics and, in turn, the effectiveness of disease biocontrol.

4. Applications of Trichoderma in Agriculture

We selected 123 articles, including review and data articles with the keywords ‘Trichoderma × field’, to discuss the advantages and positive results of Trichoderma spp. application under field conditions, along with the evaluation of its inoculation effects. Additionally, we screened the most commonly used Trichoderma species for field experiments, including the application of commercial products. Out of these, 114 articles were reviewed, identifying different Trichoderma species with the following frequency:
  • T. harzianum → 28
  • T. asperellum → 17
  • Trichoderma spp. → 13
  • T. atroviride → 7
  • T. viride → 5
  • Trichoderma sp. → 5
  • T. virens → 3
  • T. longibrachiatum → 3
  • T. afroharzianum → 3
  • T. hamatum → 2
  • T. gamsii → 2
  • T. aureoviride → 1
  • T. asperelloides → 1
  • T. ghanense → 1
  • T. koningiopsis → 1
  • T. reesei → 1
  • T. simmonsii → 1
  • T. lignorum → 1

4.1. Most Used Trichoderma Species in Sustainable Agriculture

For this review, we included the most relevant data articles from 2017 to 2025. We excluded review articles since we wanted to focus on the Trichoderma species or strains used, the crops treated under field conditions, and the target pathogen or pest. The results of this analysis are detailed in Table 1.

4.2. Cases of Success in Field Conditions

From the articles chosen for the systematic review, we selected twenty-one, considering them the most relevant to the field application of Trichoderma and its effects on disease control in essential crops. Most importantly, we chose twenty-one articles that showcase the actual impact of the most commonly used Trichoderma strains under real-world conditions.
As previously mentioned, the most common mechanism of action for monitoring or assessing the control of soil-borne and/or aerial pathogens in plants is the induction of systemic resistance, either through analyzing the gene expression of PR proteins or by measuring disease severity symptoms [43,44,142].
Managing plant diseases is essential for agricultural sustainability and food security. In this context, pathogens such as Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, and Colletotrichum pose significant threats to various crops, resulting in substantial losses in agricultural production [41,143,144]. Furthermore, among these twenty-one selected articles, some studies only evaluated crop growth promotion, nutrient uptake, and/or final seed yield or fruit weight.

4.2.1. Disease Control in Field Conditions

Most of the selected articles reported success stories involving the use of Trichoderma spp., either alone or combined with other microorganisms. Out of the 21 articles, two described cases where the Trichoderma strains were isolated from the laboratory, propagated, and then tested in field experiments. Additionally, 19 articles documented the use of commercial products based on Trichoderma spp.
In a study on passion fruit (Passiflora edulis) crops, the antagonistic action of native and commercial strains of Trichoderma spp. against Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, the cause of anthracnose, was assessed. The results showed inhibition of the pathogen’s mycelial growth by up to 88.1% [145].
Acosta-González et al. (2022) [104] evaluated the effect of two native strains of Trichoderma, T. asperellum and T. koningiopsis, in different comparisons with other commercial biofungicides to determine their effect on the disease caused by Fusarium oxysporum in blackberry. In that study, they determined that the most effective treatment for disease control was the native strain T. koningiopsis, with 62% efficacy compared to the commercial treatment Natucontrol (T. harzianum), while T. asperellum was among the least effective treatments for disease control.
Nevertheless, the ability of different Trichoderma species to induce plant defense responses against insect pests is also determined by environmental factors such as temperature. This was demonstrated by Di Lelio et al. (2021) [118], who evaluated the impact of temperature on the strains T. afroharzianum T22 and T. atroviride P1 against Macrosiphum euphorbiae aphids and Spodoptera littoralis moths in tomato, concluding that the optimal temperatures for resistance induction against both pests were 25 °C for T. harzianum T22. In comparison, for T. atroviride P1, it was 20 °C.
One of the most interesting studies is that of dos Santos et al. (2025) [58], in which co-inoculation of products based on Trichoderma asperellum and Bacillus subtilis was performed, in addition to using systemic fungicides for the treatment of the pathogens Corynespora cassiicola, Cercospora sojina, and Septoria glycines. All of these were applied foliarly and as cell-free suspensions (filtered) in soybean. This work is particularly interesting because Trichoderma-based products are generally applied to the soil, which is the habitat where Trichoderma species are usually found. Since the products were filtered before application, this could indicate that the metabolites produced by the microorganisms, even in the form of commercial products, were capable of effectively inhibiting pathogens. Additionally, the co-application of both products did not improve pathogen control.
Among the most relevant studies is that of Funahashi et al. (2022) [103], in which solarization combined with Trichoderma asperellum was used to evaluate the impact on soil microbial communities from two different locations: San Rafael, CA, and Corvallis, OR. This study determined that the combined impact of both treatments did not have significant effects on the native microbial communities of either site.
One of the most widely used strains in commercial products is T. harzianum T22 (currently assigned as T. afroharzianum T22). Commercial products based on this strain have been effectively used for biological disease control and also for yield enhancement in important crops. In a recent study, Forlano et al. (2022) [89] conducted experiments not only in greenhouses but also in the field to demonstrate the direct and indirect influence of T22 on herbivory, viruses, powdery mildew, and arthropod communities in Cucurbita pepo L. plants. The results of these experiments were quite interesting, as they observed that the effect of the product based on T22 made the plants more attractive to aphids and Hymenoptera parasitoids, but it was not able to control zucchini pathogens. Forlano et al. (2022) [89], explained this as the result of complex multipartite interactions between microorganisms–pathogens–insects–plants, encouraging further research into BCA-based products.

4.2.2. Plant Growth Promotion and Nutrient Uptake

Research has widely shown that the Trichoderma genus can promote plant growth and enhance nutrient uptake. These fungi form beneficial relationships with plants, enhancing their growth and resistance to stress conditions [146].
The ability of Trichoderma to enhance nutrient uptake is demonstrated in several ways. For instance, solubilization of phosphorus and iron, through the production of organic acids and siderophores, allows Trichoderma to convert insoluble forms of phosphorus and iron into forms that plants can absorb, aiding their uptake [147]. Additionally, recent research has shown that inoculation with Trichoderma increases micronutrient levels, such as zinc and manganese, in plant tissues, which supports optimal plant growth [148].
In the same study mentioned above by dos Santos et al. (2024) [58], the foliar application of the filtered product from T. asperellum, followed by the foliar application of the filtered product from B. subtilis, increased soybean seed yield in addition to reducing disease incidence. To evaluate the effect of B. subtilis and T. harzianum in increasing the bioavailability and degradation of components to enhance the yield and development of maize plants, Zhang et al. (2022) [98] incorporated different tonnage amounts of compost, maize residues, and the aforementioned BCAs in various field experiments. They observed that the addition of compost and maize increased field capacity, organic matter, and hydraulic stability and saturation. However, beyond the need to incorporate this composting to increase organic matter, they ultimately recommended the use of B. subtilis in combination over T. harzianum.
Brecchia et al. (2022) [97], conducted an interesting study in which they also evaluated the effect of the growing season and the use of Trichoderma + clinoptilolite on the potential risk of toxic element (PTE) absorption in Cucumis melo L. The experiments were conducted in spring and summer, yielding outstanding results. It was determined that neither Trichoderma nor clinoptilolite had a significant effect on PTE absorption in plants. However, the correlation of this absorption was related to the cultivation season and development, as a possible response to water stress.

4.2.3. The Role of Trichoderma in Enhancing Plant Tolerance to Abiotic Stress

Abiotic stress, caused by factors like drought, salinity, and extreme temperatures, is a major threat to global agriculture. These factors impair plant growth and yield by disrupting physiological processes and reducing the availability of vital nutrients [149]. In this context, Trichoderma has been demonstrated to be an effective biotechnological tool for mitigating the effects of abiotic stress in crops [150].
Drought is one of the most damaging factors for plants because it reduces water uptake and causes metabolic changes that affect growth and productivity. However, it has been demonstrated that Trichoderma inoculation enhances plant tolerance to drought through various mechanisms, including the promotion of root growth, which facilitates more effective soil exploration and improved water access during drought conditions [151].
Furthermore, in its interaction with the rhizosphere, Trichoderma releases organic acids and siderophores that solubilize vital minerals such as phosphorus and iron, increasing their availability to plants in saline soils [150]. Furthermore, this fungus has shown its ability to regulate ionic absorption in roots by promoting potassium (K+) accumulation and reducing sodium toxicity, a key mechanism in salinity tolerance [152].
The presence of Trichoderma in saline soils stimulates the production of osmoprotectants such as proline, trehalose, and soluble sugars, which help plant cells maintain osmotic stability and lessen the impact of salt stress [153]. Furthermore, Trichoderma activates antioxidant systems in plants, increasing the production of enzymes like superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), which reduce damage caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated under saline stress conditions [154].
Another key mechanism of Trichoderma in salinity tolerance is its ability to modify soil microbiota, promoting the establishment of beneficial microorganisms that contribute to plant health [155]. Studies have shown that Trichoderma facilitates interactions with nitrogen-fixing bacteria and arbuscular mycorrhizae, which enhance water and nutrient uptake in highly saline soils [156].

4.3. Implications for Field Applications

Some Trichoderma strains perform well in laboratory and greenhouse settings but lose effectiveness in open-field environments due to abiotic stress, competition loss, or the presence of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. For example, Kumar et al. (2024) [157] tested the performance of Trichoderma strains with insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, and four chemical fertilizers, discovering that all pesticides hindered Trichoderma mycelia growth except for Thiamethoxam 25% WG at 0.125%. Only Urea and muriate of potash proved compatible with T. pseudokoningii. Additionally, not all Trichoderma strains show the expected positive effects because they may lack adaptation to the specific crops or soil.
These context-dependent effects emphasize the importance of localized screening and validation of Trichoderma strains. Generalizations based on laboratory or greenhouse results are not always applicable to the field. Bacilio et al. (2017) [158] work showed that using plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) (Pseudomonas stutzeri) treatments had beneficial effects on the tested pepper plants under saline stress conditions. However, when shifting to larger-scale greenhouse conditions, more negative than positive effects were observed under saline stress. Additionally, they found no potential effects on the tested peppers in the field under saline conditions.
Therefore, adopting a site-specific approach, including compatibility testing with crops, soils, and local climate conditions, is crucial for increasing the success rate of Trichoderma-based interventions. Evidence indicates that the most effective way to perform this evaluation is through cross-referenced tests using consortia or individual microorganisms, in combination with compost or inoculants, applied to the crops of interest [159]. Additionally, selecting native Trichoderma strains from particular crops and enriching these strains for those crops could help avoid problems related to strain × cultivar specificity. For example, a synthetic community based on native soil microorganisms was developed to inoculate tobacco, using different carriers and compared with a commercial fertilizer containing Bacillus subtilis. The native community produced higher levels of indole acetic acid and siderophores and demonstrated greater nitrogen fixation and phosphorus solubilization than the commercial option [160]. Moreover, French beans were inoculated with native Rhizobium strains, combined with carriers like lime and/or chemical fertilizers, and compared to local farmers’ practices across different scale levels, including field conditions [161]. Field experiment results showed that the combination of fertilizer with strain 2 (RBHR-21) and lime increased seed yield by approximately 56% compared to traditional farming methods.
As research progresses, there is an ongoing need to optimize growth formulations and inoculation techniques to maximize the benefits these fungi provide in agriculture [162,163]. Incorporating Trichoderma into sustainable farming practices will not only help address crop health issues but also promote a more environmentally friendly and efficient method of crop management [164,165].
Future formulations might also benefit from multi-strain consortia or combinations with other beneficial microbes to buffer variability and increase resilience across various agricultural settings [166].

5. Context-Dependent Efficacy of Trichoderma

Trichoderma fungi are widely recognized as effective biocontrol agents and promoters of plant growth under controlled conditions. [167,168,169]. Their performance in field environments remains unpredictable. The complex interactions among biotic and abiotic factors mainly cause this inconsistency [170]. While Trichoderma fungi show significant ecological flexibility, their effectiveness heavily depends on context, influenced by specific strains, crop types or cultivars, soil properties, and current environmental conditions [171,172,173,174,175,176]. Gaining a deeper understanding of these context-specific variables is crucial for enhancing their consistency and optimizing their application in sustainable agricultural systems.

5.1. Influence of Strain-Specific Variability on Performance

Trichoderma is a genetically diverse genus, and functional traits vary significantly between species and even among strains of the same species [177,178]. Trichoderma’s mycoparasitic ability, secondary metabolite production, root colonization efficiency, and rhizosphere competence are not uniformly distributed among strains [36,179,180,181]. For example, Kubicek et al. (2003) [178] evaluated 96 Trichoderma isolates from Southeast Asia, revealing clear species-specific patterns after metabolic analysis with T. virens, T. spirale, T. asperellum, T. koningii, H. jecorina, and T. ghanense forming distinct biochemical clusters, while T. atroviride and T. viride showed some overlaps in their metabolic profiles. In another study, ref. [182] assessed the carbon source utilization of five preselected strains from China, known for their chitinase and cellulase activities, saline-alkaline tolerance, and phosphate-solubilizing ability: T. hengshanicum, T. bomiense, T. rosulatum, and T. crystallinum. Trichoderma fructicola Tf16-88 was used as a control because it showed no activity. Their results revealed two main patterns of carbon utilization. Strains demonstrating cellulase, chitinase, and phosphate solubilization activities showed significantly more efficient substrate utilization compared to a saline-alkaline-tolerant strain or strains with limited enzymatic activity (such as cellulase and chitinase). Based on these examples and other published job descriptions, choosing an appropriate strain is essential for targeted applications.

5.2. Crop Type and Genotype Interactions

The interaction between Trichoderma and host plants also depends on the plant’s genotype. Some cultivars respond more to root colonization or systemic resistance induction than others [179,183]. Protection from soilborne disease agents by Trichoderma mainly results from direct antibiosis and mycoparasitism. For example, variation in the systemic effects of Trichoderma is typically observed in studies comparing different cultivars of the same plant species, such as sugar beet and tomato colonized by T. afroharzianum T22 (previously described as T. harzianum T22) and T. atroviride P1 [177,184]. Additionally, for tomatoes, Jaiswal et al. [185] reported a significant reduction in the ability to respond to Trichoderma, leading to induced systemic resistance to pathogens throughout domestication. In the case of seven sugar beet genotypes, lines D, G, and I showed a total biomass increase, whereas line F experienced an adverse effect from the T. afroharzianum T22 treatment. Three genotypes showed no significant differences compared to the mock. Furthermore, lines A and F exhibited differences in the expression of PR1, RAP2–3, LOX2, and PR3/CHIB genes after treatment with T22 [177]. Additionally, regarding common bean and anthracnose disease resistance, Trichoderma-related effects on anthracnose levels mainly result from plant-mediated mechanisms. This was observed across five different bean accessions, with the most significant effects seen in the susceptible accession, Negro San Luis, after treatment with all Trichoderma strains. Conversely, negative effects were noted on Flor de Mayo Anita following inoculation with T. longibrachiatum MK1 [183].

5.3. Soil Characteristics and Environmental Conditions

Soil is a highly dynamic environment that greatly influences microbial activity and survival. Factors like soil pH, texture, organic matter content, microbial diversity, and moisture affect the establishment and effectiveness of Trichoderma [186,187].
As mentioned above, in a specific field experiment, the effect of the growing season and the use of Trichoderma + clinoptilolite was evaluated on the potential risk of toxic element (PTE) absorption in Cucumis melo L. Results suggest that this absorption is more closely related to the cultivation season and plant development, possibly as a response to water stress, rather than the presence of Trichoderma [97].
The interaction between Trichoderma spp. and the growing substrate is crucial for the effectiveness of this resistance induction [154]. Substrates used in plant production, such as peat mixes, generally have a limited ability to induce systemic resistance, which restricts Trichoderma’s potential in these environments. Conversely, adding compost to these mixes can greatly enhance Trichoderma’s effectiveness [188]. For instance, research shows that combining compost with peat not only increases Trichoderma populations but also boosts its ability to reduce foliar disease incidence. This is because compost provides plants with a more suitable environment for Trichoderma growth and, as a result, for activating defense responses on a systemic level [189].
In particular, competition with native soil microbiota can limit colonization and effectiveness [190]. Additionally, the soil’s nutrient status may alter plant exudation patterns, indirectly influencing Trichoderma-plant interactions [176]. In another study, Okoth and Odhiambo [191] found that Trichoderma was negatively correlated with soil acidity, and some species, like T. viride and T. koningii, were attracted to Mn and Na. Meanwhile, T. harzianum showed very low nutrient loading. Trichoderma surrotunda, T. citrinoviride, and T. aggressivum were attracted to Cu and C.
Climatic variables such as temperature [118], humidity, pH, nutrients, and salt concentration can affect the survival and biological activity of Trichoderma [192,193], including its sporulation rate [174]. Nieto-Jacobo et al. (2017) [194] explained that the production of secondary metabolites, especially VOCs, depends on environmental conditions, at least for T. asperellum LU1370. This organism also has different effects on plants, ranging from growth suppression to death in soil conditions, but shows a positive effect when tested on agar plates.

6. Challenges in the Application of Trichoderma

While several Trichoderma species have shown significant potential as biocontrol agents and plant growth promoters in controlled environments, such as Petri dish conditions, pot conditions in a growth chamber, or greenhouse [41,195,196], their widespread use in commercial agriculture has been hindered by various practical and biological challenges. These challenges include inconsistencies in field performance compared to laboratory results, compatibility issues with conventional agricultural inputs, and limitations in scalability and cost-effectiveness for large-scale application [75,160,197].

6.1. Variability in Field Performance vs. Laboratory Results

One of the most common issues with BCA-based applications is the gap between promising laboratory results and inconsistent field effectiveness. Controlled environments, like growth chambers or greenhouses, offer ideal conditions for microbial survival, host colonization, and pathogen suppression. In contrast, field environments are highly variable and expose strains to multiple stressors, including competition with native microbiomes, changes in moisture and temperature, UV radiation, and variations in soil chemistry [174,176,177,191]. These factors can significantly decrease the persistence and effectiveness of Trichoderma strains after application.
Furthermore, ecological interactions in natural soils can influence the expression of genes related to biocontrol or secondary metabolite production [174,194,198], further complicating performance predictions. The absence of field-predictive bioassays or standardized efficacy tests across diverse agroecological settings remains a significant gap in Trichoderma research and commercialization.
In 2015, Bardin et al. [197] conducted an extensive review analysis of several microorganisms used as BCAs, in combination with other microorganisms and plant extracts, and the susceptibility of plant pathogens to some BCAs, noting the variation in sensitivity since many biological control agents have different modes of action.

6.2. Compatibility with Agricultural Practices

The effectiveness of Trichoderma can also be negatively impacted by conventional agricultural inputs such as synthetic fertilizers, fungicides, and herbicides [199]. These chemicals may inhibit spore germination, hyphal growth, or the metabolic activity of the applied Trichoderma strains [200,201,202]. Some studies have been conducted to evaluate the compatibility of Trichoderma spp. with insecticides like Chlorpyrifos, fungicides such as Carbendazim and Hexaconazole, and other pesticides like Mancozeb, Imidacloprid, and Acephate, as well as herbicides like Glyphosate, at different concentrations, demonstrating that this compatibility is also strain-dependent [203,204]. For example, some fungicides may have broad-spectrum activity that accidentally suppresses beneficial fungi, while high levels of nitrogen fertilizers might change root exudation patterns and disrupt Trichoderma–plant interactions [194].
Although some Trichoderma strains have shown tolerance to certain agrochemicals, strain-specific testing is essential to confirm compatibility and establish co-application guidelines [201,205].

6.3. Scalability and Cost-Effectiveness for Large-Scale Use

The mass production, formulation, storage, and distribution of Trichoderma products present additional challenges. While solid-state fermentation, such as using brown rice and wheat grains as substrates, is often used for spore production because of its cost-effectiveness [206,207], it can be challenging to scale, and maintaining strain viability and consistency in spore quality is labor-intensive [208]. Liquid fermentation provides improved scalability and process control but may lead to lower spore yields and reduced shelf life [209].
Furthermore, formulation development remains a key bottleneck. The viability of Trichoderma spores during storage and after field application depends on the choice of carrier materials, moisture retention, pH, and protection from UV radiation [210].
From an economic perspective, although Trichoderma-based products are generally less expensive than synthetic agrochemicals in the long run, initial costs and perceived uncertainty in effectiveness can hinder their widespread adoption, particularly among small-scale producers [211].

7. Advances in the Development of Trichoderma-Based Products

Although most commercial products are made using a single strain in monoculture, recent studies have shown that consortia of multiple Trichoderma species can improve biocontrol effectiveness and promote plant growth [159,212]. In one study, T. asperellum demonstrated a mycelial inhibition rate of 53.24% against Fusarium oxysporum in vitro [20]. Research indicates that combining species such as T. asperellum, T. harzianum, and T. virens leads to a greater positive effect on seed germination and protection against Fusarium oxysporum in crops like cucumbers [213].

7.1. Formulation Technologies: Carrier Materials and Shelf-Life Improvements

One of the main challenges in developing Trichoderma-based products is ensuring their long-term viability and effectiveness. Formulation technologies play a crucial role in determining the shelf life, stability, and ease of application of these biocontrol agents. Various carrier materials, such as peat, clay, vermiculite, and liquid formulations, have been created to improve product stability [214,215]. Liquid formulations with oil- or polymer-based matrices provide extended viability, while granular or encapsulated formulations enable slow-release mechanisms that enhance root colonization and field performance [45,216]. Moreover, advances in microencapsulation and nanoformulations have greatly increased the shelf life of Trichoderma spores by minimizing their degradation from environmental factors like temperature changes and UV exposure [217].

7.2. Integration with Precision Agriculture and Biotechnological Tools

The rise in precision agriculture has created new opportunities to optimize the use of Trichoderma-based products. Technologies like remote sensing, geographic information systems (GIS), and automated irrigation systems allow for targeted application of these biocontrol agents driven by real-time data on soil and plant health [218].
Additionally, biotechnological tools such as high-throughput screening, metagenomics, and bioinformatics help identify highly effective Trichoderma strains suited to specific edaphoclimatic conditions. Combining Trichoderma-based products with precision agriculture not only maximizes their effectiveness but also reduces waste and environmental impact [219].

7.3. Molecular Identification and the Potential of Genetic Engineering to Enhance Strain Effectiveness

One of the key aspects in developing commercial products is accurately identifying and choosing Trichoderma strains. To achieve this, advanced molecular techniques such as DNA and RNA sequencing are employed, enabling a more precise classification within the Trichoderma genus. These methods are essential for ensuring the effectiveness of bioproducts in various agricultural settings [220].
Genetic engineering has great potential to improve the effectiveness of Trichoderma strains. Using genetic editing technologies like CRISPR/Cas9, researchers can enhance the expression of genes responsible for producing antifungal metabolites, stress tolerance, and promoting plant growth [221,222]. Additionally, genetic modifications can increase Trichoderma’s ability to colonize plant roots and compete more effectively against phytopathogenic fungi, e.g., Chi et al. (2023) [223], evaluated the overexpression of the glycosyltransferase Taugt17b1 in T. atroviride, observing an increase in the ability to colonize plant roots.

7.4. Market Trends and Consumer Acceptance

The rising focus on sustainable agriculture and organic production has increased the demand for biological control products, including those formulated with Trichoderma. Consumers and regulatory agencies are increasingly favoring environmentally friendly alternatives to chemical pesticides [224]. As a result, several countries are adopting these technologies and commercializing Trichoderma-based products, as shown in Table 2, where some of the most widely applied Trichoderma-based products are displayed.
However, market penetration still depends on factors such as profitability, ease of use, and the level of knowledge among farmers. Educational campaigns and policy incentives that promote biological alternatives are crucial in encouraging consumer acceptance. Furthermore, strategic collaborations between biofungicide manufacturers and large agricultural companies can help expand the market and encourage widespread adoption of these products [235].

8. Knowledge Gaps and Future Perspectives

While Trichoderma fungi have been extensively studied at the laboratory level, showing promising results as biocontrol agents, enzyme producers, and plant growth promoters, only a few strains have been developed for industrial-scale agricultural formulations and have demonstrated effective results across various crops, soil types, and climatic conditions [160,236].
As with other BCA-based products, knowledge gaps limit the broader use of Trichoderma in various agroecosystems [158]. Therefore, addressing these gaps is vital for improving the effectiveness, consistency, and broader adoption of Trichoderma bioformulations.

8.1. Need for Strain-Specific Studies Under Diverse Conditions

One major limitation in Trichoderma research is assuming all strains behave the same, such as the widespread use of T. afroharzianum T22 in many products worldwide because of its effectiveness on maize [237,238]. Laboratory and even greenhouse experiments often do not translate into field success because we lack enough understanding of strain-specific interactions with crops, soil nutrients, physical properties, and climate conditions [176,180,198]. For several years, Trichoderma research has focused on conducting multi-environmental trials and characterizing strain-specific traits, including root colonization ability, metabolite production, and mycoparasitic potential. This should occur not only across different crops but also among various cultivars of the same plant, as has recently been evaluated [179,183].

8.2. Development of Multi-Strain Consortia for Improved Resilience

A multi-strain consortium involves using products that combine different microorganisms, such as Bacillus spp., Rhizobium sp., Trichoderma spp., mycorrhizal fungi, and others, or even combining two or more strains from the same microorganism [239,240].
Using only a single Trichoderma strain may not offer enough protection when applied across all agricultural systems. Combining different microorganisms, such as Trichoderma harzianum, Bacillus subtilis, and Pseudomonas spp., in products is a common practice [239,240,241]. However, studies assessing the effectiveness of such combinations in protecting various crops under different conditions are not always performed. Designing and optimizing microbial consortia requires a deeper understanding of microbial interactions, compatibility, and colonization dynamics.

8.3. Role of Microbial Ecology in Optimizing Trichoderma Performance

A key factor in the success of Trichoderma inoculants is the native soil microbiome. Often, introducing a non-native strain fails to establish or persist because of competition with the native microbiome [242,243,244]. This has been better studied in the gut microbiome [245]. Integrating concepts from microbial ecology, such as community assembly, functional redundancy, and ecological succession, can help predict Trichoderma performance and design more ecologically compatible applications [239,244,246]. High-throughput sequencing and -omics technologies (e.g., metagenomics, transcriptomics) are powerful tools for tracking microbial changes and identifying key indicators of inoculant success or failure [247,248].

9. Discussion and Conclusions

The use of Trichoderma spp. or any other BCA in sustainable agriculture systems is one of the most promising strategies for reducing chemical inputs while boosting plant health and productivity and lowering pathogen resistance. Trichoderma displays multiple traits that enhance crop resistance, including mycoparasitism, antibiosis, direct competition, and systemic resistance through salicylic acid and jasmonic acid. Since then, the application of particular Trichoderma species has been explored and combined with other organic and integrated farming practices, offering a promising outlook for next-generation agroecological systems. However, despite strong evidence from laboratory experiments and the commercialization of products based on Trichoderma strains, the inconsistent effectiveness of these strains in field conditions remains a challenge for large-scale adoption. This variability depends on factors such as plant–host genotype, soil type, nutrient levels, and environmental conditions.
To address these challenges, future research on BCA-based products should focus on more thorough screening of native Trichoderma strains for application under local field conditions, improving formulation strategies to enhance shelf life and viability, integrating microbial consortia and other sustainable practices, and using molecular tools to better understand native strains that have co-evolved with the crops and sites of interest.
Overall, the use of Trichoderma represents a cornerstone of sustainable crop management, contributing to reduced chemical dependency and improved soil and plant health. However, achieving consistent and predictable field performance remains a critical step for large-scale implementation. Strengthening research on native strains, multi-strain consortia, and advanced formulations will be essential to bridge the gap between experimental success and field reality. Furthermore, integrating Trichoderma-based bioformulations with precision agriculture and omics techniques could unlock their full potential as reliable biotechnological tools for resilient and low-impact food production systems. Collectively, these advances will accelerate the transition toward agroecosystems that are both productive and environmentally sustainable.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.d.l.S.-V. and K.G.-M.; methodology, all authors; software, K.G.-M., A.I.O.-M. and A.C.M.-M.; validation, all authors; formal analysis, all authors; investigation, all authors; writing—original draft preparation, all authors; writing—review and editing, all authors; visualization, all authors; supervision, S.d.l.S.-V.; project administration, S.d.l.S.-V.; funding acquisition, S.d.l.S.-V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Secretaría de Ciencia, Humanidades, Tecnología e Innovación (SECIHTI), grant number CBF-2025-G-562, as well as Instituto Tecnológico de Sonora (ITSON), grant number PROFAPI 2025-001.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
BCABiological control agent
ISRInduced systemic resistance
6-PP6-pentyl-α-pyrone
VOCVolatile organic compound
PGPRPlant growth-promoting rhizobacteria
PRPathogenesis-related
SODSuperoxide dismutase
CATCatalase
ROSReactive oxygen species
IAAindole-3-acetic acid

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Figure 1. Mechanisms of action of Trichoderma against phytopathogens in agroecosystems. Mycoparasitism is the mechanism of action with the major direct impact on other microorganisms, especially on fungal communities, followed by antibiosis and the enhancement of Induced Systemic Resistance (ISR) in plants.
Figure 1. Mechanisms of action of Trichoderma against phytopathogens in agroecosystems. Mycoparasitism is the mechanism of action with the major direct impact on other microorganisms, especially on fungal communities, followed by antibiosis and the enhancement of Induced Systemic Resistance (ISR) in plants.
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Figure 2. Cultural and biological control traits of Trichoderma T8a. (a) Macroscopic appearance of strain T8, individual culture. (b) Microscopic morphology of strain T8a of Trichoderma sp., showing typical Trichoderma phialides (white circle). (c) Antagonism test, via mycoparasitism, confronting Colletotrichum gloesporioides. One (*) and two (**) asterisks indicate the inoculation of C. gloeosporioides and the Trichoderma T8a strain, respectively [27].
Figure 2. Cultural and biological control traits of Trichoderma T8a. (a) Macroscopic appearance of strain T8, individual culture. (b) Microscopic morphology of strain T8a of Trichoderma sp., showing typical Trichoderma phialides (white circle). (c) Antagonism test, via mycoparasitism, confronting Colletotrichum gloesporioides. One (*) and two (**) asterisks indicate the inoculation of C. gloeosporioides and the Trichoderma T8a strain, respectively [27].
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Table 1. The principal Trichoderma species used in open field conditions, and the most relevant work from 2017 to 2025.
Table 1. The principal Trichoderma species used in open field conditions, and the most relevant work from 2017 to 2025.
Trichoderma SpeciesCrop/PlantTarget Pathogen/DiseaseReference
Trichoderma spp.CornLeaf blight and Stalk Rot[50]
T. virideTomatoPhytophthora infestans, Late blight[51]
Trichoderma  sp. (formulation)
T. harzianum		Rubber treePhytophthora and Corynespora[52]
Trichoderma bioformulations: T. harzianumChickpeaFusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceris[53]
T. harzianumWheatStem rust (Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici)[54]
Trichoderma strainsSoybeanFusarium oxysporum[55]
T. harzianumAppleApple replant disease (ARD)[56]
Trichoderma formulationOroxylum indicumNA[57]
T. asperellumSoybeanSeveral diseases[58]
T. aureoviride and T. hamatumGrapevinesNA[59]
Several Trichoderma isolatesSoybean and common beanSclerotinia sclerotiorum[60]
Trichoderma spp.SugarcaneNA[61]
Trichoderma strains: T. harzianumRiceBrown spot, Rice blast[62]
Trichoderma TrBGrass (Golf courses)Fusarium sp.[63]
Different Trichoderma formulationsOnionPurple blotch disease (Alternaria porri)[64]
Trichoderma sp.TobbaccoTobacco black shank (TBS) and tobacco root black rot (TRBR)[65]
T. asperellumCornDowny mildew (Peronosclerospora spp. L.)[66]
Trichoderma spp.NAHoney bee[67]
Trichoderma strainsOnionNA[68]
Trichoderma spp.GrapevinesNeofusicoccum parvum[69]
Trichoderma spp.TomatoesNA[70]
T. harzianumCottonNA[71]
T. harzianumSoybeanNA[72]
T. virensMaizeAnthracnose, Leaf blight, and insect herbivores[42]
T. asperellumTomatoMeloidogyne incognita[73]
T. atrovirideGrapevinePhomopsis viticola[74]
T. virensTomatoFusarium oxysporum[75]
T. atroviride and commercial TrianumTomato, thyme (Thymus vulgaris), and basil (Ocimum basilicum L.)Late blight[76]
T. virideChilli and TomatoChilli pathogens (Pythium aphanidermatum, Phytophthora capsici, and Fusarium oxysporum) and tomato (Pythium aphanidermatum, Phytophthora infestans, and F. oxysporum)[77]
T. harzianumMaizeNA[78]
T. asperelloidesSoybeanNA[79]
T. longibrachiatum, T. asperellumGroundnutStem rot[80]
Trichoderma spp.Sweet CornLeaf blight[81]
T. asperellum and T. harzianumChilli and Chinese KaleAnthracnose[82]
T. harzianumMaizeNA[83]
T. asperellumNot specifiedMeloidogyne incognita[84]
T. harzianumSorghumNA[85]
T. atrovirideSoybeanNA[86]
T. viridewinter wheat (Sultan variety)Aspergillus, Mucor, Fusarium[87]
T. ghanenseSeet potatoNA[88]
T. harzianum T22Cucurbita pepo Lplant viruses, powdery mildew, and the arthropod community[89]
T. harzianum T22BlueberryBotrytis Blossom[90]
T. asperellumAmaranthNA[91]
T. virideCabbage (Brassica oleracea L.)NA[92]
T. koningiopsis NBRI-PR5 (PR5) and T. asperellum NBRI-K14 (K14) consortiumRiceNA[93]
T. harzianumCucumberAspergillus tamarii and A. niger[94]
T. asperellumTomatoMeloidogyne spp.[95]
Trichoderma speciesPanax notoginsengRoot rot[96]
Trichoderma spp.Cucumis melo L.NA[97]
T. harzianumMaizeNA[98]
Trichoderma spp.SoybeanNA[99]
T. virideChickpeaFusarium wilt[100]
T. asperellum, T. gamsiiGrapevinesEsca complex disease[101]
Trichoderma speciesPepperFusarium oxysporum and Rhizoctonia solani[102]
T. asperellumSoilPhytophthora ramorum[103]
Trichoderma strainsBlackberryFusarium wilt[104]
Trichoderma 6-PP compoundMaizeMagnaporthiopsis maydis[105]
Trichoderma strainsMaizeFusarium verticillioides[106]
T. longibrachiatumCucumberFusarium solani[107]
T. hamatumPepperMicrobial communities[108]
Trichoderma spp.PearStemphylium vesicarium and Pleospora allii[109]
Trichoderma spp.BarleyNA[110]
T. reesei bio-productwinter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cv. Ada and spring barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) cv. Luokė.NA[111]
Not specifiedGrapevinesGrapevine pruning wounds[112]
T. harzianumBlack pepperNA[113]
Trichoderma strains: T. harzianum, T. simmonsii, T. afroharzianumWheatNA[114]
T. harzianumSoilNA[115]
T. atroviride LX-7 and T. citrinoviride HT-1Pakchoi (Brassica chinensis L.)NA[116]
T. asperellumBananaFusarium species[117]
T. afroharzianum T22, T. atroviride P1TomatoMacrosiphum euphorbiae, and Spodoptera littoralis[118]
Trichoderma spp.Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)Sclerotinia sclerotiorum[119]
Trichoderma spp.Great millet (Sorghum bicolour L.)Anthracnose[120]
T. harzianumMaizeRoot rot, damping-off (Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium spp.), stalk rot (Erwinia carotovora), gray leaf spot (Cercospora zeae-maydis), late wilt (Cephalosporium maydis), and ear rot (Fusarium verticillioides, F. graminearum)[121]
T. harzianumTomatoNA[122]
T. asperellumCornRhizoctonia solani[123]
Trichoderma T-soybeanMaizeMaize stalk rot[124]
T. afroharzianum, T. harzianum, T. gamsiiWheatCrown rot pathogen Fusarium pseudograminearum[125]
T. harzianumMaizeCold stress[126]
T. harzianumTomatoWilt and root rot diseases[127]
Trichoderma sp., T. reesei Simmons, T. virens Miller, T. harzianum Rifai,CornNA[128]
T. harzianum, T. virens, T. asperellum, and T. longibrachiatumSugarcaneRed Rot[129]
T. asperellumCacaoVascular-streak dieback (VSD) disease (Ceratobasidium theobromae)[130]
Trichoderma spp.MungbeanMacrophomina phaseolina and Rhizoctonia solani[131]
T. asperellumMaizeFusarium graminearum[132]
T. lignorumNot specifiedAtta cephalotes[133]
T. harzianumCorn, MaizeLeaf blight (Cochliobolus heterostrophus)[134]
T. harzianumBroccoliNA[135]
T. asperellumTomatoWilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum[136]
T. atrovirideCucumberDowny mildew[137]
T. atroviride/T. harzianumSoil-LettuceNA[138]
T. harzianumMaizeFusarium graminearum[139]
Trichoderma spp.PepperNot specified[140]
T. harzianum M10 and T. atroviride P1GrapesNA[141]
NA: Not applied; used to determine that no disease or pathogen was monitored, or only growth-promotion or nutrient uptake was evaluated.
Table 2. Most widely marketed and cited products in the literature and manufacturers’ pages.
Table 2. Most widely marketed and cited products in the literature and manufacturers’ pages.
Product NameTrichoderma StrainCountry or Supplier (Origin)Principal Crops of ApplicationTarget Diseases
Trianum/Trianum-P (Trianum-WG, T-22)Trichoderma harzianum strain T-22 *Koppert (The Netherlands/Koppert) Global Product.Ornamentals, horticulture, protected fruits and crops (greenhouse).Soil phytopathogens: Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Fusarium, Sclerotinia, Thielaviopsis; Root and vigor enhancer [225].
RootShield/RootShield PLUSTrichoderma harzianum strain T-22 * (in combination with T. virens G-41 in RootShield PLUS)Plant Health Care PHC (EE. UU.)—distributed in North America and Europe.Horticulture, ornamentals, transplants, pot crops, greenhouses.Soil phytopathogens: Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Fusarium, Thielaviopsis, etc. [226].
TrichodexTrichoderma harzianum strain T-39Israel/historically commercialized by Makhteshim-AganStrawberries, greenhouse horticulture, grape vine, field horticulture.Botrytis (grey mildew), other soil and foliar pathogens (integrated use against Botrytis, Sclerotinia, etc [227].
VELLTRIX (TRICHODEX line)Trichoderma asperellum (commercial strain from the group TRICHODEX)Fertiberia/TRICHODEX (Spain/Europe)Widely used in field and horticultural crops to improve root development; used in cereals, vegetables, and fruit trees, depending on the formulation.Biofertilizer/bioprotection: improves rooting, tolerance to water stress, and support against soil diseases (broad action, growth promotion) [228].
T34 Biocontrol (Trademark/T34)Trichoderma asperellum strain T34Biocontrol Technologies, Manufacturer in Spain (EPA-registered product/US regulatory documentation also available).Greenhouse use: ornamental crops (e.g., carnations) and trials on other protected crops.Aimed at controlling Fusarium oxysporum (stimulation of plant defenses and control of Fusarium wilt) [229].
VintecT. atroviride SC1Bi-PA (Belgium).Protection of grapevine, greenhouse tomato, and other fruiting crops.Phaeomoniella chlamydospora, Phaeoacremonium aleophilum, Botrytis cinerea, Coryneum, Monilinia and Taphrina [230].
TENET WP/Remedier/BLINDART. asperellum ICC 012 and
T. gamsii ICC 080		Gowan LLC (multinational)Control of soil diseases of soy and wheat, eggplant, zucchini, strawberry, lettuce, melon, cucumber, pepper, tomato, and watermelon.Phytophthora spp., Pythium spp. [231].
SOILGARD 12 GTrichoderma virens/Gliocladium virens GL-21Certis Biologicals (USA)Nightshades, cucurbits, ornamentals, lettuce, spinachOverturning/Pythium spp., Fusarium oxysporum, Rhizoctonia spp., and root rots [232].
Tricotec®Trichoderma koningiopsis Th003Agrosavia (Colombia and Latin America)Tomato, lettuce, rice, berries, roses, and ornamentals, potatoFusarium oxysporum, Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotinia spp., Botrytis cinerea [233].
Eco-T®T. harzianum strain Eco-TPlant Health Products (Africa)Horticultural and field cropsFusarium, Phytophthora, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia, Verticillium [234].
* Trichoderma harzianum T22 has been reasignated as T. afroharzianum T22.
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Gutiérrez-Moreno, K.; Olguín-Martínez, A.I.; Montoya-Martínez, A.C.; de los Santos-Villalobos, S. Trichoderma in Sustainable Agriculture and the Challenges Related to Its Effectiveness. Diversity 2025, 17, 734. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17100734

AMA Style

Gutiérrez-Moreno K, Olguín-Martínez AI, Montoya-Martínez AC, de los Santos-Villalobos S. Trichoderma in Sustainable Agriculture and the Challenges Related to Its Effectiveness. Diversity. 2025; 17(10):734. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17100734

Chicago/Turabian Style

Gutiérrez-Moreno, Karina, Ana I. Olguín-Martínez, Amelia C. Montoya-Martínez, and Sergio de los Santos-Villalobos. 2025. "Trichoderma in Sustainable Agriculture and the Challenges Related to Its Effectiveness" Diversity 17, no. 10: 734. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17100734

APA Style

Gutiérrez-Moreno, K., Olguín-Martínez, A. I., Montoya-Martínez, A. C., & de los Santos-Villalobos, S. (2025). Trichoderma in Sustainable Agriculture and the Challenges Related to Its Effectiveness. Diversity, 17(10), 734. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17100734

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