A Narrative Review on Oral and Periodontal Bacteria Microbiota Photobiomodulation, through Visible and Near-Infrared Light: From the Origins to Modern Therapies
Abstract
:1. Light Is Life: The Origin
2. Light Is Life: The Evolution
3. Light Is Life: The Therapy
3.1. Photobiomodulation
3.2. The Oral Microbiota in Health and Disease
- gram-positive: cocci—Abiotrophia, Peptostreptococcus, Streptococcus, and Stomatococcus; rods—Actinomyces, Bifidobacterium, Corynebacterium, Eubacterium, Lactobacillus, Propionibacterium, Pseudoramibacter, and Rothia;
- gram-negative: cocci—Moraxella, Neisseria, and Veillonella; rods—Campylobacter, Capnocytophaga, Desulfobacter, Desulfovibrio, Eikenella, Fusobacterium, Hemophilus, Leptotrichia, Prevotella, Selemonas, Simonsiella, Treponema, and Wolinella;
- the uncultured divisions GN02, SR1, and TM7 [89].
3.3. Photobiomodulation on Bacterial Microbiota
3.3.1. Evidence-Based Literature
3.3.2. Possible Mechanism of Action
4. Light Is Life: Outlook for the Future
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Reference | Bacteria | Parameters | Authors Conclusions |
---|---|---|---|
[103] | Porphyromonas gingivalis, Fusobacteriurn nucleatun, Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus (Enterococcus) faecalis | Halogen lamps (400–500 nm), 0.260–0.416 W/cm2, 16–75 J/cm2, 1 cm2, 60–90–120–150–180 s. Plasma-arc (450–490 nm), 1.144 W/cm2, 69–206 J/cm2, 1 cm2, 60–90–120–150–180 s, CW. LED (450–480 nm), 0.520 W/cm2, 31–94 J/cm2, 1 cm2, 60–90–120–150–180 s, CW Diode laser (830 nm), dose described above | Visible light sources without exogenous photosensitizers have a phototoxic effect mainly on Gram-negative periodontal pathogens. 830-nm did not affect the bacteria. |
[104] | Porphyromonas endodontalis, P. gingivalis, Prevotella intermedia, Prevotella denticola | Argon laser (488 nm and 514 nm), 0.58 W, 20–200 J/cm2, 3.5–4 cm2, 120–1380 s, CW | Protoporphyrin IX content in black-pigmented bacteria is not the principal factor determining photosensitivity. Oxygen is required during irradiation for black-pigmented bacteria species to be affected. Non-black-pigmented bacteria are much less sensitive to irradiation than black-pigmented bacteria. |
[105] | Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus | Argon-ion pumped tunable dye laser (630–660 nm); Diode lasers (810–905 nm), 0.015 W/cm2, 1–2–5–10–20–50 J/cm2, 66–132–330–658–1320–3300 s | Photobiomodulation applied to wounds in the range of 1–20 J/cm2 may produce changes in bacterial growth of considerable importance for wound healing. A wavelength of 630 nm is most commonly associated with bacterial inhibition. |
[106] | S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa | Diode laser (810 nm), 0.015 W/cm2; 1–50 J/cm2; 66–3290 s, CW or 50% duty cycle; 26–5000 Hz | Modulation frequency and radiant exposure of 810 nm laser irradiation significantly influence the effect on particular bacteria. Pulsed laser, at least at a wavelength of 810 nm and high pulse frequency, seems to have the potential to induce growth effects in P. aeruginosa. |
[107] | S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa | Diode laser (660, 830 nm), 0.03 W, 3–6–12–18–24 J/cm2, 100–200–400–600–800 s, CW Diode laser (904 nm), 0.04 W, 3–6–12–18–24 J/cm2, 75–150–300–450–600 s | Laser irradiation inhibits the growth of S. aureus at all wavelengths and fluences higher than 12 J/cm2. However, for P. aeruginosa, photobiomodulation inhibits growth at all wavelengths only at a fluence of 24 J/cm2. E. coli has similar growth inhibition at a wavelength of 830 nm at fluences of 3, 6, 12, and 24 J/cm2. At wavelengths of 660 and 904 nm, growth inhibition is only observed at fluences of 12 and 18 J/cm2, respectively. |
[108] | P. aeruginosa, E. coli, E. faecalis, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, S. aureus | Ga-Al-As laser (810 nm), 0.36 W/cm2, 13 J/cm2 for 36 s, 18 J/cm2 for 60 s, 30 J/cm2 for 80 s, 0.5 cm2 500 Hz, duty cycle of 50% and voltage of 240 V | Photobiomodulation appears to be an effective treatment for Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacterial strains. |
[109] | S. aureus | Diode laser (830 nm), 0.03 W, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 16 J/cm2, 4–8–12–16–20–64 s, CW Diode laser (660 nm), 0.03 W, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 16 J/cm2, 2–4–6–8–10–32 s, CW Diode laser (904 nm), 0.04 W, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 16 J/cm2, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, and 48 s, 9500 Hz, duty cycle of 0.1% | Photobiomodulation at 830 and 904 nm wavelengths reduces the growth of S. aureus. Specifically, the most evident topographical change of the cell structure occurred irradiating at 904 nm at a fluence of 3 J/cm2. |
[110] | S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, E. coli | Laser (450 nm), 0.07 W, 3–6–12–18–24 J/cm2, 43–86–172–257–343 s, 1 cm2, CW | Blue laser light is capable of inhibiting bacterial growth at low fluences over time, thus presenting no time-dependent effect. |
[111] | S. mutans, Lactobacillus casei, Actinomyces naeslundii | Diode laser (810 nm), 1–1.5 W, 30 s, flexible the optic fiber of 200 µm diameter | Diode lasers exert an antibacterial effect of varying levels against all three cariogenic bacteria. |
[112] | S. mutans | InGaAsP diode laser (780 nm), 0.04 W, 5–10–20 J/cm2, 250–500–1000 s, CW | Photobiomodulation has an inhibitory effect on the microorganisms, and this capacity can be altered according to the interactions between different microbial species. |
[113] | S. aureus, E. coli | Semiconductor lasers (405 nm and 445 nm), power in the range of 0.05–0.50 W, 0.050 W/cm2, 0–10800 s, CW | S. aureus and E. coli are inhibited in growth by a dose-dependent modality. 405 nm is more effective than 445 nm. |
[114] | P. intermedia, Prevotella nigrescens | Light-emitting diode (405 nm), 0.019 W/cm2, 0.19–0.57–1.14–5.73 J/cm2, 10–30–60–300 s, 0.79 cm2 | Lethal photosensitivity is demonstrated in two species of Prevotella spp. under anaerobic conditions. |
[115] | P. gingivalis | LED (460 nm), 0.40 W/cm2, 1–10–100 J | Photobiomodulation has a bactericidal effect on potential multiple drug-resistant bacteria. |
[116] | P. aeruginosa | LED (415 nm), 19.5 mW/cm2, 14–28–56.1–84.2–109.9 J/cm2, from 720 to 5760 s | Blue light therapy might offer an effective and safe alternative to conventional antimicrobial therapy for P. aeruginosa burn infections. |
[117] | P. gingivalis | LED (from 400 to 700 nm), 0.05 W/cm2 for 300 s, 0.20 W/cm2 for 75 s, 0.40 W/cm2 for 38 s, 15 J/cm2 | P. gingivalis growth is specifically suppressed by 405 nm light irradiation, suggesting that visible blue light irradiation is a promising means for eradicating periodontal pathogenic bacteria from periodontal lesions. |
[118] | P. aeruginosa, S. aureus | Ar ion laser (514 nm); SHG Nd:YAG (532 nm); He-Ne laser (633 nm), 0.3–19 mW; 0.015–1.130 J/cm2; 350 and 420 s; CW | The laser can affect cell growth. The three wavelengths induce a proliferative effect on P. aeruginosa and an inhibitory effect on S. aureus. |
[119] | E. coli | He-Ne laser (632.8 nm); Filament-lamp (631 nm), 4–40 mW; 0.01–10 J/cm2; CW | The laser increases cell growth. The wavelengths increase DNA synthesis and proliferation. |
[120] | E. coli | InGaAsP-InP laser diode (1300 nm), 0.03 W/cm2, 0.9–9 J/cm2, 30–300 s, CW GaAs semiconductor diode (950 nm), 120 W/m2, 2–26–700–1000–5000 Hz and an equivalent pulse duration of 410–31.1–1.15–0.82–0.16 ms, respectively | The laser increases cell growth. 1300 nm laser diode increases the division of E. coli with an influence range of 0.9–9 J/cm2. 950 nm pulsed irradiation increases or inhibits the division rate of bacteria depending on the pulsing frequency and/or pulse duration. |
[121] | E.coli | He-Ne laser (632.8 nm); semiconductor lasers (1066 and 1286 nm), from 0.03 to 30 W/cm2, from 0.05 to 2000 J/cm2, from 10−2 to 900 s | The laser increase cell growth. Irradiation times produce two maxima effects in the growth stimulation. First at 0.5 J/cm2 and then at 60–3000 J/cm2. |
[122] | E. coli (different genotypes) | He-Ne laser (632.8 nm); 15 mW; 0.4–4.0 J/cm2; CW | The laser increases cell growth. The growth and protein synthesis of E. coli are affected by laser light based on the cell cycle phase and the strain genotype. |
[123] | Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, P. gingivalis, P. nigrescens, F. nucleatum | InGaAlP laser (660 nm), 0.035 W, 74.2 J/cm2, 2.1 J/point, 60 s | Inhibition of cell growth. |
Bacteria | Best Therapy Effect (Inhibition of Cell Growth, Death) Reported in the Selected Literature | Reference |
---|---|---|
Porphyromonas gingivalis Gram-negative, anaerobic, black-pigmented | Type of cell culture: medium Plasma-arc (450–490 nm), 1.144 W/cm2, 138 J/cm2, 1 cm2, 120 s, CW LED (450–480 nm), 0.520 W/cm2, 62 J/cm2, 1 cm2, 120, CW Halogen lamps (model 1, 400–500 nm), 0.416 W/cm2, 75 J/cm2, 1 cm2, 180 s Killed bacteria: ~100% Halogen lamps (model 2, 400–500 nm), 0.260 W/cm2, 47 J/cm2, 1 cm2, 180 s Killed bacteria: ~80–90% Type of cell culture: Agar Similar effects described above | [103] |
Type of cell culture: medium Argon laser (488 nm + 514 nm), 0.58 W, 0.15 W/cm2, 18 J/cm2, 3.5–4 cm2, 120 s, CW Killed bacteria: ~25–30% | [104] | |
Type of cell culture: medium LED (460 nm), 0.40 W/cm2, 100 J Killed bacteria: ~50% | [115] | |
Type of cell culture: medium LED 405 nm, 0.05 W/cm2 for 300 s, 0.20 W/cm2 for 75 s, 0.40 W/cm2 for 38 s, 15 J/cm2 Inhibition bacteria growth: ~75% | [117] | |
Organism: rat InGaAlP laser (660 nm), 0.035 W, 74.2 J/cm2, 2.1 J/point, 60 s; 4 applications Killed bacteria: ~50% respect to baseline | [123] | |
Prevotella intermedia Gram-negative, anaerobic, black-pigmented | Type of cell culture: medium Argon laser (488 nm + 514 nm), 0.58 W, 0.15 W/cm2, 120 J/cm2, 3.5–4 cm2, 800 s, CW Killed bacteria (strain 15033): ~100% Killed bacteria (strain 49046): ~0% | [104] |
Type of cell culture = Agar Light-emitting diode (405 nm), 0.019 W/cm2, 1.14 J/cm2, 60 s, 0.79 cm2 Killed bacteria: ~40% | [114] | |
Prevotella nigrescens Gram-negative, anaerobic, black-pigmented | Type of cell culture: Agar Light-emitting diode (405 nm), 0.019 W/cm2, 5.7 J/cm2, 300 s, 0.79 cm2 Killed bacteria: ~13% | [114] |
Organism: rat InGaAlP laser (660 nm), 0.035 W, 74.2 J/cm2, 2.1 J/point, 60 s; 4 applications Surviving bacteria: ~0% respect to baseline | [123] | |
Fusobacteriurn nucleatun Gram-negative, anaerobic | Type of cell culture: medium Halogen lamps (model 2, 400–500 nm), 0.260 W/cm2, 39 J/cm2, 1 cm2, 150 s Killed bacteria: ~90–100% LED (450–480 nm), 0.520 W/cm2, 93 J/cm2, 1 cm2, 120, CW Killed bacteria: ~50% Halogen lamps (model 2, 400–500 nm), 0.416 W/cm2, 62 J/cm2, 1 cm2, 150 s Killed bacteria: ~100% Plasma-arc (450–490 nm), 1.144 W/cm2, 207 J/cm2, 1 cm2, 180 s, CW Killed bacteria: ~40% Type of cell culture: Agar Killed bacteria: they were almost totally killed through 150 s of irradiation under all experimental conditions | [103] |
Organism: rat InGaAlP laser (660 nm), 0.035 W, 74.2 J/cm2, 2.1 J/point, 60 s; 4 applications Killed bacteria: ~40–45% with respect to baseline | [123] | |
Escherichia coli Gram-negative, facultative anaerobic | Type of cell culture: medium Argon-ion pumped tunable dye laser (630 nm); 0.015 W/cm2, 1 J/cm2, 66 s, CW Inhibition bacteria growth: ~25% | [105] |
Type of cell culture: medium Diode laser (830 nm), 0.03 W, 24 J/cm2, 800 s, CW Inhibition bacteria growth: ~50% | [107] | |
Type of cell culture: medium Ga-Al-As laser 810 nm, 0.36 W/cm2, 13 J/cm2 for 36 s, 30 J/cm2 for 80 s, 0.5 cm2 500 Hz, duty Cycle of 50% and voltage of 240 V Large effect on inhibition bacteria growth | [108] | |
Type of cell culture: medium Laser (450 nm), 0.07 W, 6 and 12 J/cm2, 86 and 172 s, 1 cm2, CW Killed bacteria: ~40% | [110] | |
Type of cell culture: Agar Semiconductor lasers (405 nm), power in the range of 0.05–0.50 W, 0.050 W/cm2, 180 J/cm2, 3600 s, CW Killed bacteria: ~100% | [113] | |
Pseudomonas aeruginosa Gram-negative, aerobic | Type of cell culture: medium Argon-ion pumped tunable dye laser (630); 0.015 W/cm2, 1 J/cm2, 66 s, CW Diode lasers (810), 0.015 W/cm2, 5 J/cm2, 330 s, CW Inhibition bacteria growth: ~25% | [105] |
Type of cell culture: medium Diode lasers (810), 0.015 W/cm2, 5 J/cm2, 330 s, CW Inhibition bacteria growth: ~25% | [106] | |
Type of cell culture: medium Diode laser (660 or 830 nm), 0.03 W, 24 J/cm2, 800 s, CW Diode laser (904 nm), 0.04 W, 24 J/cm2, 600 s CW Inhibition bacteria growth: ~50% | [107] | |
Type of cell culture: medium Ga-Al-As laser 810 nm, 0.36 W/cm2, 13 J/cm2 for 36 s, 0.5 cm2 500 Hz, duty cycle of 50% and voltage of 240 V Large effect on inhibition bacteria growth | [108] | |
Type of cell culture: medium Laser (450 nm), 0.07 W, 18 and 24 J/cm2, 257 and 343 s, 1 cm2, CW Killed bacteria: ~60% | [110] | |
Type of cell culture: medium LED (415 nm), 0.0195 W/cm2, 109.9 J/cm2, 5760 s, Killed bacteria: ~100% | [116] | |
Staphylococcus aureus Gram-positive, facultative anaerobic | Type of cell culture: medium Argon-ion pumped tunable dye laser (630 nm); 0.015 W/cm2, 5 J/cm2, 330 s, CW Diode lasers (810 nm and 905 nm), 0.015 W/cm2, 5 J/cm2, 330 s, CW Inhibition bacteria growth: ~10 | [105] |
Type of cell culture: medium Diode laser (810 nm), 0.015 W/cm2; 1 and 2 J/cm2; 66 ans 132 s, 50% duty cycle; 292 Hz Inhibition bacteria growth: ~10% | [106] | |
Type of cell culture: medium Diode laser (660 nm), 0.03 W, 24 J/cm2, 800 s, CW Inhibition bacteria growth: ~78% | [107] | |
Type of cell culture: medium Diode laser (904 nm), 0.04 W, 3 J/cm2, 9 s, 9500 Hz, duty cycle of 0.1% Killed bacteria: ~80% | [109] | |
Type of cell culture: medium Laser (450 nm), 0.07 W, 6, 12, 18, and 24 J/cm2, 86–172–257 and 343 s, 1 cm2, CW Killed bacteria: ~60% | [110] | |
Type of cell culture: Agar Semiconductor lasers (405 nm), power in the range of 0.05–0.50 W, 0.050 W/cm2, 180 J/cm2, 3600 s, CW Killed bacteria: ~92% | [113] | |
Type of cell culture: medium He-Ne laser (633 nm), 0.019 W; 1.130 J/cm2; 420 s; CW Surviving bacteria: ~33% | [118] | |
Streptococcus mutans Gram-positive, facultative anaerobic | Type of cell culture: medium Plasma-arc (450–490 nm), 1.144 W/cm2, 159 J/cm2, 1 cm2, 138 s, CW Killed bacteria: inhibition of cell growth (not specified) | [103] |
Type of cell culture: medium Diode laser (810 nm), 1.5 W, 30 s, flexible optic fiber of 200 µm diameter Killed bacteria: ~70% | [111] | |
Type of cell culture: medium InGaAsP diode laser (780 nm), 0.04 W, 0.02 W/cm2, 20 J/cm2, 1000 s, CW Biofilm reduction: ~90% | [112] | |
Streptococcus pyogenes Gram-positive, facultative anaerobic | Type of cell culture: medium Ga-Al-As laser (810 nm), 0.36 W/cm2, 18 J/cm2 for 60 s, 30 J/cm2 for 80 s, 0.5 cm2, 500 Hz, duty cycle of 50% and voltage of 240 V Large effect on inhibition bacteria growth | [108] |
Enterococcus faecalis Gram-positive, facultative anaerobic | Type of cell culture: medium Plasma-arc (450–490 nm), 1.144 W/cm2, 212 J/cm2, 1 cm2, 184 s, CW Surviving bacteria: inhibition (not specified) | [103] |
Type of cell culture: medium Ga-Al-As laser (810 nm), 0.36 W/cm2, 13 J/cm2 for 36 s, 30 J/cm2 for 80 s, 0.5 cm2, 500 Hz, duty cycle of 50% and voltage of 240 V Large effect on inhibition bacteria growth | [108] | |
Staphylococcus epidermidis Gram-positive, facultative anaerobic | Type of cell culture: medium Ga-Al-As laser 810 nm, 0.36 W/cm2, 18 J/cm2 for 60 s, 30 J/cm2 for 80 s, 0.5 cm2 500 Hz, duty cycle of 50% and voltage of 240 V Large effect on inhibition bacteria growth | [108] |
Staphylococcus saprophyticus Gram-positive, facultative anaerobic | Type of cell culture: medium Ga-Al-As laser 810 nm, 0.36 W/cm2, 18 J/cm2 for 60 s, 30 J/cm2 for 80 s, 0.5 cm2 500 Hz, duty cycle of 50% and voltage of 240 V Large effect on inhibition bacteria growth | [108] |
Lactobacillus casei Gram-positive, facultative anaerobic | Type of cell culture: medium Diode laser (810 nm), 1.5 W, 30 s, flexible optic fiber of 200 µm diameter Killed bacteria: ~50% | [111] |
Actinomyces naeslundii Gram-positive, anaerobic | Type of cell culture: medium Diode laser (810 nm), 1.5 W, 30 s, flexible optic fiber of 200 µm diameter Killed bacteria: ~38% | [111] |
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Amaroli, A.; Ravera, S.; Zekiy, A.; Benedicenti, S.; Pasquale, C. A Narrative Review on Oral and Periodontal Bacteria Microbiota Photobiomodulation, through Visible and Near-Infrared Light: From the Origins to Modern Therapies. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23, 1372. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23031372
Amaroli A, Ravera S, Zekiy A, Benedicenti S, Pasquale C. A Narrative Review on Oral and Periodontal Bacteria Microbiota Photobiomodulation, through Visible and Near-Infrared Light: From the Origins to Modern Therapies. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2022; 23(3):1372. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23031372
Chicago/Turabian StyleAmaroli, Andrea, Silvia Ravera, Angelina Zekiy, Stefano Benedicenti, and Claudio Pasquale. 2022. "A Narrative Review on Oral and Periodontal Bacteria Microbiota Photobiomodulation, through Visible and Near-Infrared Light: From the Origins to Modern Therapies" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 3: 1372. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23031372