The Interplay between Oxidative Stress, Inflammation and Angiogenesis in Bladder Cancer Development
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Oxidative Stress and Bladder Cancer
3. Inflammation and Bladder Cancer
4. Modulation of Inflammatory System in Course of BCG Therapy
- (1)
- Attachment of BCG to the urothelium cells through the interaction between molecules in the bacterial wall and fibronectin in the urothelium;
- (2)
- Internalisation of BCG into resident immune cells, regular cells and urothelial tumour cells through increased macropinocytosis;
- (3)
- BCG-mediated induction of innate immunity, which is characterised by urothelial cells and antigen-presenting cells (APCs) activation and then induction of cytokine and chemokine production (including IL-6, IL-8, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and TNF-α that attract granulocytes and mononuclear cells to the bladder. Interestingly, the levels of IL-1β, IL-8, IL-15, IL-18, CXC-chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10), GM-CSF, CC-chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) and CCL3 in urine are detectable within the first 24 h after BCG infusion. In addition, in the urinary tract and the bladder, the presence of neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, T cells, B cells and NK cells was observed after BCG therapy.
- (4)
- BCG-mediated initiation of tumour-specific immunity. APC and urothelial cell activity may lead to BCG antigens presentation of these cells surface via MHC class II. These MHC affect CD4+ T cell receptors, resulting in primarily T helper 1 (TH1) cell immune activation and differentiation. TH1 activation induces the generation of IL-2, IL-12, IFN-γ, TNF-α and TNF-β and leads to the activation of cytotoxic CD8+ T lymphocytes, which destroy cancer cells. On the other hand, in the BCG therapy response, the production of IL-4, IL-5, IL-6 and IL-10 by primary T helper 2 (TH2) was associated with BCG non-responsiveness and cancer progression [241].
5. Angiogenesis
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Gene (Protein Product) | Polymorphism | Chromosome Location | Position | Nucleotide Change | SNP Function | Risk Allele (Frequency) | Allelic OR (95%CI) | p-Value | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AL050403.2 | rs62185668 | 20p12.2 | chr20:10981287 | C/A | intron variant | 0.22012 | 1.19 (1.13–1.26) | 2 × 10−11 | [46] |
PSCA, JRK | rs2294008 | 8q24.3 | chr8:142680513 | C/T | 5′ UTR variant | 0.451005 | 1.15 (1.10–1.20) | 2 × 10−10 | [47,48] |
TP63, P3H2 | rs710521 | 3q28 | chr3:189928144 | T/C | intergenic variant | 0.257688 | 1.19 (1.12–1.27) | 6 × 10−8 | [49] |
CASC11, MYC | rs9642880 | 8q24.21 | chr8:127705823 | G/A G/T | intron variant | 0.000000 0.455939 | 1.21 (1.15–1.28) | 7 × 10−12 | [48] |
AC023421.2, SLC14A1 | rs7238033 | 18q12.3 | chr18:45737001 | T/C | intron variant | 0.566372 | 1.2 (1.13–1.28) | 9 × 10−9 | [50] |
TACC3 | rs798766 | 4p16.3 | chr4:1732512 | T/C | intron variant | 0.795826 | 1.24 (1.17–1.32) | 1 × 10−11 | [36,51] |
PSD3, NAT2 | rs1495741 | 8p22 | chr8:18415371 | G/A | regulatory region variant | 0.756073 | 1.14 (1.09–1.18) | 2 × 10−10 | [52,53] |
UGT1A8, UGT1A10 | rs11892031 | 2q37.1 | chr2:233656637 | A/C A/T | intron variant | 0.078850, 0.000000 | 1.19 (1.12–1.27) | 1 × 10−7 | [39,54] |
CCNE1, AC008798.3 | rs8102137 | 19q12 | chr19:29805946 | T/C | regulatory region variant | 0.306569 | 1.13 (1.09–1.17) | 2 × 10−11 | [39,55] |
APOBEC3A, AL022318.1 | rs1014971 | 22q13.1 | chr22:38936618 | C/T | regulatory region variant | 0.628195 | 1.18 (1.10–1.18) | 8 × 10−12 | [39,53] |
CLPTM1L | rs401681 | 5p15.33 | chr5:1321972 | G/A | intron variant | 0.433217 | 1.12 (1.08–1.16) | 4 × 10−11 | [53,56] |
AC023421.2, SLC14A1 | rs17674580 | 18q12.3 | chr18:45729946 | C/A C/T | 5′ UTRvariant | 0.000000, 0.332221 | 1.17 (1.11–1.22) | 8 × 10−11 | [56,57] |
LINC02871 | rs6104690 | 20p12.2 | chr20:11007451 | G/A G/T | intron variant | 0.553042, 0.000000 | 1.12 (1.08–1.18) | 7 × 10−7 | [53] |
LSP1, TNNI2 | rs907611 | 11p15.5 | Chr11:1852842 | G/A | regulatory region variant | 0.304845 | 1.15 (1.09–1.21) | 4 × 10−8 | [53] |
MYNN | rs10936599 | 3q26.2 | chr3:169774313 | C/T | synonymous variant | 0.245632 | 1.18 (1.11–1.23) | 5 × 10−9 | [52,53] |
AL513188.1, CDKAL1 | rs4510656 | 6p22.3 | chr6:20766466 | C/A | intron variant | 0.38803 | 1.12 (1.08–1.18) | 7 × 10−7 | [53] |
PAG1 | rs5003154 | 8q21.13 | chr8:81074718 | T/C T/G | intron variant | 0.51809, 0.00000 | 1.11 (1.06–1.16) | 1 × 10−6 | [53] |
MCF2L | rs4907479 | 13q34 | chr13:113004794 | G/A G/C | intron variant | 0.23256, 0.00000 | 1.13 (1.07–1.18) | 3 × 10−6 | [53] |
Gene | Enzyme | Gene Location | Characteristics of the Enzyme | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
COX-2 | prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 (cyclooxygenase) | 1q31.1 | is the key enzyme in prostaglandin biosynthesis and acts both as a dioxygenase and as a peroxidase—converts arachidonic acid to prostaglandin endoperoxide H2; COX-2 is naturally inhibited by calcitriol (the active form of Vitamin D) | [58,59,60] |
NOX-4 | NADPH oxidase 4 | 11q14.3 | protects the vasculature against inflammatory stress; NOX-dependent ROS modulation by amino endoperoxides may induce apoptosis in high Nox4-expressing cancer cells | [61] |
iNOS | inducible nitric oxide synthase | 17q11.2. | iNOS produces large quantities of NO upon stimulation, such as by proinflammatory cytokines | [61,62,63,64,65] |
CAT | catalase | 11p13 | is a heme enzyme and catalyses the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen and thereby mitigates the toxic effects of hydrogen peroxide | [66,67,68] |
GPx3 | glutathione peroxidase 3 | 5q33.1 | catalyze the reduction of organic hydroperoxides and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) by glutathione, and thereby protect cells against oxidative damage; this isozyme is secreted, and is abundantly found in plasma | [69] |
SOD1 | superoxide dismutase 1 [Cu-Zn] | 21q22.11 | is a soluble cytoplasmic protein, acting as a homodimer to convert naturally occurring but harmful superoxide radicals to molecular oxygen and hydrogen peroxide; this protein also contains an antimicrobial peptide that displays antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-MRSA activity against E. coli, E. faecalis, S. aureus, S. aureus MRSA LPV+, S. agalactiae, and yeast C. krusei | [69] |
SOD2 | manganese-dependent superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) | 6q25 | transforms toxic superoxide, a by-product of the mitochondrial electron transport chain, into hydrogen peroxide and diatomic oxygen | [69,70] |
PON1 | serum paraoxonase/arylesterase 1 | 7q21.3 | is secreted mainly by the liver; is responsible for hydrolysing organophosphate pesticides and nerve gasses, and mediates enzymatic protection of low-density lipoproteins against oxidative modification | [71,72,73] |
PON2 | serum paraoxonase/arylesterase 2 | 7q21.3 | may act as a cellular antioxidant, protecting cells from oxidative stress—prevents LDL lipid peroxidation, reverses the oxidation of mildly oxidised LDL, and inhibits the ability of MM-LDL to induce monocyte chemotaxis. Hydrolytic activity against acylhomoserine lactones, important bacterial quorum-sensing mediators, suggests the encoded protein may also play a role in defence responses to pathogenic bacteria | [74] |
Oxidative Stress | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Gene/Protein | Biological Specimens | Molecular Change in Bladder Cancer Course | Comments | References |
MDA level | serum | increased | [80] | |
8-iso-PGF2 α | urine | increased | no correlation was observed between 8-iso-PGF2 α level and the degree of malignancy and invasiveness of BC | [53,82] |
COX-2 expression | bladder cells | increased | COX-2 expression was inversely correlated with existing of recurrence of NMIBC; high level of COX-2 expression was associated with an advancing grade and T stage of superficial transitional cell carcinoma | [59,60] |
NOX-4 expression | bladder tissue | overexpression | [61] | |
NO | bladder tissue, urine and serum | increased | [64,65] | |
iNOS expression | bladder tissue | increased | overexpression of iNOS was correlated with a transition to more advanced stages of bladder cancer | [62] |
CAT level | serum, blood | reduced | [66] | |
CAT expression and activity | bladder tissue | the low expression of CAT may contribute to the recurrence of BC | [67,69,79] | |
GPx3 activity | plasma | reduced | [69] | |
GPx1 activity and expression | erythrocytes, leucocytes | increased | [69,98,99] | |
SOD activity | cell carcinoma, erythrocytes | reduced | [69] | |
SOD expression | cell carcinoma, peripheral blood leucocytes | [83,84,85,86] | ||
SOD level | serum | SOD level in serum and blood was negatively correlated with the stage of bladder cancer—the lowest level of SOD was observed in patients with the most advanced cancer | [66,87] | |
PON1 concentration | serum | reduced | [71,72] | |
PON2 expression | bladder tissue | increased | [74] |
Gene | Name | Location | Characteristic | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
TNF-α | tumour necrosis factor alpha | 6p21.33 | TNF-α is mainly secreted by macrophages and can bind to and thus functions through its receptors TNFRSF1A/TNFR1 and TNFRSF1B/TNFBR. This cytokine is involved in regulating a broad spectrum of biological processes, including cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, lipid metabolism, and coagulation. It has been implicated in various diseases, including autoimmune diseases, insulin resistance, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, tuberculosis, autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease, and cancer. | [128,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148,149,150] |
IL-4 | interleukin 4 | 5q31.1 | This cytokine is a ligand for the interleukin 4 receptor. This receptor also binds to IL13. IL4 is considered an important cytokine for tissue repair, counterbalancing the effects of proinflammatory type 1 cytokines; however, it also promotes allergic airway inflammation. IL-4 has an essential role in the production of allergen-specific immunoglobin (Ig) E. | [151,152] |
IL-5 | interleukin 5 | 5q31.1 | The cytokine acts as a growth and differentiation factor for both B cells and eosinophils and plays a significant role in regulating eosinophil formation, maturation, recruitment and survival. | [153] |
IL-6 | interleukin 6 | 7p15.3 | The cytokine is involved in inflammation and the maturation of B cells. An elevated level of the encoded protein has been finding in virus infections, including COVID-19. | [154,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,162,163,164,165,166,167,168] |
IL-8 | interleukin 8 | 4q13.3 | IL-8 is a major mediator of the inflammatory response and is secreted by mononuclear macrophages, neutrophils, eosinophils, T lymphocytes, epithelial cells, and fibroblasts. It functions as a chemotactic factor by guiding the neutrophils to the site of infection. This chemokine is also a potent angiogenic factor. The binding of IL-8 to one of its receptors (IL-8RB/CXCR2) increases the permeability of blood vessels, and an elevated level of IL-8 is positively correlated with the greater severity of multiple disease outcomes. | [169,170,171,172,173,174,175,176,177,178,179,180,181,182,183,184] |
IL-17 | interleukin 17 | 6p12.2 | The cytokine is produced by activated T cells. IL-17-mediated downstream pathways induce the production of inflammatory molecules, chemokines, antimicrobial peptides, and remodelling proteins. The cytokine elicits crucial impacts on host defence, cell trafficking, immune modulation, and tissue repair, with a critical role in the induction of innate immune defences. A high level of this cytokine is associated with several chronic inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis and multiple sclerosis. The lung damage induced by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is largely a result of the inflammatory response promoted by cytokines such as IL-17 (cytokine storm). | [185,186,187,188,189,190] |
IL-20 | interleukin 20 | 1q32.1 | The cytokine is part of the larger IL-10 cytokine family. It is produced by keratinocytes and generally functions to enhance innate defence mechanisms. It promotes wound healing by increasing keratinocyte proliferation. IL-20 is considered critical in skin inflammation, and upregulation of its receptor has been shown in patients with psoriasis. | [152] |
IL-28A | interleukin 28A/interferon lambda 2 | 19q13.2 | IL-28A expression can be induced by a viral infection. | [152] |
NF-κB | nuclear factor kappa B | 4q24 | NF-κB is a transcription regulator activated by various intra- and extra-cellular stimuli such as cytokines, oxidant-free radicals, ultraviolet irradiation, and bacterial or viral products. | [169,170,191,192,193] |
TGF-β | transforming growth factor beta 1 | 19q13.2 | The factor regulates cell proliferation, differentiation, and growth and modulates the expression and activation of different growth factors, including interferon-gamma and TNF-α. This gene is frequently upregulated in tumour cells, and mutations in this gene result in Camurati-Engelmann disease. | [194,195,196,197,198,199,200] |
IFN-α | Interferon alpha | 9p21.3 | It is produced in response to viral infection as a key part of the innate immune response with potent antiviral, antiproliferative and immunomodulatory properties. | [201,202] |
IFN-β | Interferon beta | 9p21.3 | It is released as part of the innate immune response to pathogens. | [201,202] |
IFN-γ | interferon gamma | 12q15 | It is secreted by cells of both the innate and adaptive immune systems and binds to the interferon-gamma receptor, which triggers a cellular response to viral and microbial infections | [201,202] |
Inflammation | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Gene/Protein | Biological Specimens | Molecular Change in Bladder Cancer Course | Comments | References |
NF-κB expression | bladder tissue | increased | NF-κB expression is associated with histologic grade and T category in bladder urothelial cancer | [191] |
IL-8 expression | bladder tissue | increased | IL-8 expression may be associated with the metastatic potential of human transitional cell carcinoma | [171] |
TNF-α level | urine | increased | the enzyme level is associated with bladder cancer progression | [135,136] |
IL-6 level | serum | increased | high serum level of IL-6 was associated with metastasis and poor prognosis | [155] |
IL-17 expression | peripheral blood | increased | worse prognosis may be correlated with high expression of IL-17 | [187,188] |
Gene | Gene Localised | Name (Aliases) | Location | Substrates | Activation Pathway | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MMP-1 | 11q22.2 | interstitial collagenase (CLG, CLGN) | secreted | collagens: I, II, III, VII, VIII, X, gelatin | The plasmin has been described and other serine proteases, i.e., kallikrein, trypsin, neutrophil elastase, cathepsin G, tryptase and chymase may be involved in the activation of proMMP-1. | [293,294] |
MMP-2 | 16q12.2 | gelatinase-A, 72 kDa gelatinase | secreted | gelatin, collagens: I, II, III, IV, Vii, X | A complex of membrane-type 1 MMP (MT1-MMP/MMP14) and tissue inhibitor of MMP-2 recruits pro-MMP 2 from the extracellular milieu to the cell surface. Activation then requires an active molecule of MT1-MMP and autocatalytic cleavage. Clustering of integrin chains promotes MMP-2 activation. Another factor that will support the activation of MMP-2 is cell-cell clustering. A wild-type activated leukocyte cell adhesion molecule (ALCAM) is also required to activate the MMP-2. | [146,147,293,295,296,297,298,299,300,301,302,303,304,305,306] |
MMP-7 | 11q22.2 | matrilysin, PUMP 1 (MMP-7, MPSL-1, PUMP-1) | secreted | fibronectin, laminin, collagen IV, gelatin | Pro-MMP7 is converted from the latent form to the active form by endoproteinases and plasmin. Plasmin cleaves at the site recognisable to trypsin is considered as the possible physiological activator. | [299,307] |
MMP-9 | 20q13.12 | gelatinase-B, 92 kDa gelatinase (CLG4B, GELB, MANDP2, MMP-9) | secreted | gelatin, collagen IV, V | The proMMP-9 includes a cysteine residue in the N-terminal pro-domain that binds to the zinc atom in the active site thus maintaining latency. Activation of MMP-9 requires a disruption of the cysteine interaction with the zinc atom. MMP-9 activators include MMP-2, MMP-3, MMP-7, MMP-10, MMP-13, cathepsin G and urokinase/plasmin. | [296,297,298,299,304] |
MMP12 | 11q22.2 | macrophage metalloelastase (HME, ME, MME, MMP-12) | secreted | elastin, fibronectin, collagen IV | Neutrophil elastase may be required for the proteolytic activation of pro-MMP-12 | [304] |
Angiogenesis | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Gene/Protein | Biological Specimens | Molecular Change in Bladder Cancer Course | Comments | References |
VEGF expression | bladder tissue | increased | The VEGF-A level in tissue was correlated with BC grade; VEGF expression was higher in deeper tumours than superficial tumours and invasive tumours compared to non-invasive tumours. | [272,275] |
VEGFR-1 expression | bladder tissue | increased | mRNA level of VEGFR was correlated to the pathologic stage of BC. | [275] |
HIF-1 expression | bladder tissue | increased | The increased HIF-1 expression was positive correlated with disease progression and recurrence and was also associated with poor overall survival. | [288,289] |
MMP-9 expression | bladder tissue | increased | MMP-9 expression was higher in deeper tumours compared to superficial tumours, in invasive tumours compared to non-invasive tumours and high-grade tumours than in low-grade tumours; overexpression of MMP-9 in tissue was associated with a higher risk of tumour recurrence and poor prognosis. | [295,297,298] |
MMP-2 level | bladder tissue | increased | [301,302] | |
TSP-1 level | bladder cells (in vitro study) | reduced | [308] | |
TSP-1 expression | bladder tissue | The lower expression of TSP-1 was observed in high-grade tumours than in low-grade tumours. | [309,310] | |
bFGF expression | bladder tissue | increased | The overexpression of bFGF was positively correlated with muscle invasion, high tumour grade, chemotherapy resistance, high recurrence rate and poor prognosis in BC patients. | [309,315] |
bFGF level | urine, serum | [316,317] |
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Wigner, P.; Grębowski, R.; Bijak, M.; Saluk-Bijak, J.; Szemraj, J. The Interplay between Oxidative Stress, Inflammation and Angiogenesis in Bladder Cancer Development. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 4483. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22094483
Wigner P, Grębowski R, Bijak M, Saluk-Bijak J, Szemraj J. The Interplay between Oxidative Stress, Inflammation and Angiogenesis in Bladder Cancer Development. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2021; 22(9):4483. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22094483
Chicago/Turabian StyleWigner, Paulina, Radosław Grębowski, Michał Bijak, Joanna Saluk-Bijak, and Janusz Szemraj. 2021. "The Interplay between Oxidative Stress, Inflammation and Angiogenesis in Bladder Cancer Development" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22, no. 9: 4483. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22094483