Types, Causes, Detection and Repair of DNA Fragmentation in Animal and Human Sperm Cells
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Detection of DNA Damage: Techniques
3. Types of DNA Damage and Base Modification
4. Causes of DNA Fragmentation
4.1. Intrinsic Causes
4.1.1. Deficiencies in Recombination during Spermatogenesis
4.1.2. Abnormal Spermatid Maturation
4.1.3. Protamine 1 and 2 Ratios
4.1.4. Abortive Apoptosis
4.1.5. Oxidative Stress
4.2. Extrinsic Causes
4.2.1. Lapse of Time from the Ejaculation
4.2.2. Collection Methods, Extenders and Post-Ejaculation Treatments
4.2.3. Sperm Preparation Techniques for ART
4.2.4. Storage Temperature and Cryopreservation
4.2.5. Mechanical Conditions—Sex-Sorting
4.2.6. Post-Testicular Oxidative Stress
4.2.7. Varicocele
4.2.8. Bacterial Infections
4.2.9. Age
4.2.10. Abstinence
4.2.11. Temperature of Testis
4.2.12. Reaction to Clinical Procedures, Medicines or Vaccines
4.2.13. Exposure to Environmental Chemicals
5. Repair of Sperm DNA Damage
5.1. Repair during Spermiogenesis
5.2. Repair in the Fertilized Oocyte and during Early Embryonic Development
5.2.1. Sperm DNA Fragmentation Repair in the Fertilized Oocyte
5.2.2. Sperm DNA Fragmentation Repair in the Zygote
5.2.3. Sperm DNA Fragmentation Repair in during/after Implantation Embryo
6. Conclusions and Future Directions
Acknowledgments
- Conflict of InterestThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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González-Marín, C.; Gosálvez, J.; Roy, R. Types, Causes, Detection and Repair of DNA Fragmentation in Animal and Human Sperm Cells. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2012, 13, 14026-14052. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms131114026
González-Marín C, Gosálvez J, Roy R. Types, Causes, Detection and Repair of DNA Fragmentation in Animal and Human Sperm Cells. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2012; 13(11):14026-14052. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms131114026
Chicago/Turabian StyleGonzález-Marín, Clara, Jaime Gosálvez, and Rosa Roy. 2012. "Types, Causes, Detection and Repair of DNA Fragmentation in Animal and Human Sperm Cells" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 13, no. 11: 14026-14052. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms131114026
APA StyleGonzález-Marín, C., Gosálvez, J., & Roy, R. (2012). Types, Causes, Detection and Repair of DNA Fragmentation in Animal and Human Sperm Cells. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 13(11), 14026-14052. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms131114026