Recovery of Biomolecules from Food Wastes — A Review
Abstract
:1. Food Wastes
Industrial Sector | Amount of Waste (000 t) | Waste (%) |
---|---|---|
Production, processing, and preserving of meat and meat products | 150 | 2.5 |
Production and preserving of fish and fish products | 8 | 3.5 |
Production and preserving of fruits and vegetables | 279 | 4.5 |
Manufacture of vegetable and animal oils and fats | 73 | 1.5 |
Dairy products and ice cream industry | 404 | 3 |
Production of grain and starch products | 245 | 1.5 |
Manufacture of other food products | 239 | 2 |
Drinks industry | 492 | 2 |
Total | 1890 | 2.6 |
2. Extraction Techniques
2.1. Solid-Liquid Extraction
2.2. Soxhlet Extraction
2.3. Pressurized Fluid Extraction and Supercritical Fluid Extraction
2.4. Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction
2.5. Microwave-Assisted Extraction
2.6. Pulsed Electric Field Extraction
2.7. Enzyme-Assisted Extraction
3. Recovery of Biomolecules from Vegetable Wastes
Extractable Biomolecule | Substrate | Extraction Method | Yield |
---|---|---|---|
Pectin | Apple pomace, Citrus peel, Sugar beet, Sunflower heads, wastes from tropical fruits | Solid-liquid extraction [16] | 10%–15%, 20%–30% |
Flavanones | Citrus peels and residues from segments and seeds after pressing | Solid-liquid extraction [16] | |
Total and soluble dietary fibres | Apple pomace | Solid-liquid extraction [38] | 72% and 10% |
Phenolic compounds | Apple pomace | Solid-liquid extraction [39] | 33% |
Lycopene and β-carotene | Tomato pomace | Supercritical CO2 [40] | 50% |
Anthocyanins | Grape skins | Heat treatment at 70 °C, Ultrasonics, High hydrostatic pressure, Pulsed electric fields [41] | Variable |
Caffeine | Green tea leaves | Supercritical fluid extraction [42] | 97% |
Essential oils (matricine, chamazulene and α–bisabolol | Chamomile | Supercritical fluid extraction [43] | 28.08%, 0.05%, and 2.68%, respectively |
Capsaicinoids and colour components | Chilli pepper | Supercritical fluid extraction [44] | 66%–86% and 26%–34%, respectively |
Oil | Rice bran | Supercritical fluid extraction [45] | 24.65% |
γ-oryzanol | Rice bran | Solid-liquid extraction [46] | 1527–4164 mg/kg |
β-glucans | Barley bran | Solid-liquid extraction [47] | |
Lignans | Flaxseeds | Solid-liquid extraction [48] | |
Phenolic acids | Wheat brans | Solid-liquid extraction, ultrasound assisted extraction, microwave-assisted extraction [23,49] | |
Tocopherols, tocotrienols, sterols, and squalene | Palm fatty acid distillate | Liquid-liquid extraction [50,51,52] | |
Phenolic antioxidants | Aqueous by-products from the palm oil extraction | Separation techniques through membranes [50,53] | |
Tocopherols and tocotrienols | Palm fatty acid distillate | treatment with alkyl alcohol and sodium methoxide; distillation under reduced pressure; a cooling step; passage of the filtrate through an ion-exchange column with anionic exchange resin; removal of the solvent; molecular distillation [54,55,56] | |
Phenolic antioxidants | Aqueous by-products from the extraction of palm oil | Without solvent; based on simple separation principles [57] | |
Pepsin | Cod stomach silage | Ultrafiltration together with concentration, and spray-drying [58] | 0.5–1 g/kg |
Peptone | Cod stomach and viscera silage | Ultrafiltration together with concentration, and spray-drying [58] | 100 g/kg |
Polyunsaturated fatty acids | Fish wastes | Distillation, low temperature crystallization, enzymatic methods, urea complexation, alkaline hydrolysis, supercritical fluid extraction, microwave assisted extraction | |
Collagen | Fish skin, bones and fins | Acid treatment of the by-products | |
Gelatin | Fish skin, bones and fins | Heat denaturation of collagen | |
Lard | Clean tissues of healthy pigs | ||
Tallow | Fatty tissues of cattle or sheep |
4. Recovery of Biomolecules from Animal Wastes
5. Food and Food Processing Uses of the Recovered Biomolecules and By-Products
6. Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Uses of the Recovered Biomolecules and By-Products
7. Future Trends
Conflicts of Interest
References
- European Commission. Preparatory Study on Food Waste across EU 27. Technical Report-2010-054. Available online: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/eussd/pdf/bio_foodwaste_report.pdf (accessed on 13 June 2014).
- Oreopoulou, V.; Russ, W. Utilization of By-Products and Treatment of Waste in the Food Industry; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Handbook for the Prevention and Minimisation of Waste and Valorisation of By-Products in European Agro-Food Industries. Available online: http://www.zap.pw.plock.pl/english/EXESUM.htm (accessed on 10 September 2014).
- Segreé, A.; Falasconi, L. Il Libro Nero Dello Spreco in Italia: Il Cibo; Edizioni Ambiente: Milano, Italy, 2011. (In Italian) [Google Scholar]
- Laufenberg, G.; Kunz, B.; Nystroem, M. Transformation of vegetable waste into value added products: (A) the upgrading concept; (B) practical implementation. Bioresour. Technol. 2003, 87, 167–198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Council Directive 1999/31/EC on the Landfill of Waste. Available online: https://www.google.it/#q=Council+Directive+1999%2F31%2FEC+on+the+Landfill+of+Waste (accessed on 13 June 2014).
- Council Directive 91/689/EEC on Hazardous Waste. Available online: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32000D0532 (accessed on 13 June 2014).
- Parliament and Council Directive 2008/98/EC on Waste and Repealing Certain Directives. Available online: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008L0098 (accessed on 13 June 2014).
- European Commission. Innovating for Sustainable Growth: A Bioeconomy for Europe. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. Available online: http://ec.europa.eu/research/bioeconomy/pdf/201202_innovating_sustainable_growth_en.pdf (accessed on 13 December 2013).
- Heeres, H.L. Regulatory Requirements for Valorisation of Food-Chain Co-Products in the European Union. In Handbook of Waste Management and Co-Product Recovery in Food Processing; Waldron, K.W., Ed.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Parliament and Council Regulation 178/2002/EC Laying down the General Principles and Requirements of Food Law, Establishing the European Food Safety Authority and Laying down Procedures in Matters of Food Safety. Available online: http://ec.europa.eu/research/bioeconomy/pdf/201202_innovating_sustainable_growth_en.pdf (accessed on 13 June 2014).
- Parliament and Council Regulation 258/1997/EC Concerning Novel Foods and Novel Food Ingredients. Available online: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31997R0258:EN:HTML (accessed on 13 June 2014).
- Parliament and Council Reccomemdation 97/618/EC Concerning the Scientific Aspects and the Presentation of Information Necessary to Support Applications for the Placing on the Market of Novel Foods and Novel Food Ingredients and the Preparation of Initial Assessment Reports under Regulation (EC) No 258/97 of the European Parliament and of the Council. Available online: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:31997H0618 (accessed on 13 June 2014).
- Baiano, A.; Bevilacqua, L.; Terracone, C.; Contò, F.; del Nobile, M.A. Single and interactive effects of process variables on microwave-assisted and conventional extractions of antioxidants from vegetable solid wastes. J. Food Eng. 2014, 120, 135–145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baiano, A.; Viggiani, I.; Terracone, C.; del Nobile, M.A. Use of spent grain in bread-making. Aliment. Funz. 2014, 65, 12–24. [Google Scholar]
- Waldron, K. Handbook of Waste Management and Co-Product Recovery in Food Processing; Woodhead Publishing: Cambridge, UK, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Bio-Based Industries JU. WORK PLAN 2014. Available online: http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/other/wp/jtis/h2020-wp14-bbi_en.pdf (accessed on 20 August 2014).
- Escarpa, A.; Gonzalez, M.C. An overview of analytical chemistry of phenolic compounds in foods. Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 2008, 75, 57–139. [Google Scholar]
- Luthria, D.L. Influence of experimental conditions on the extraction of phenolic compounds from parsley (Petroselinum crispum) flakes using a pressurized liquid extractor. Food Chem. 2008, 1047, 745–752. [Google Scholar]
- Proestos, C.; Komaitis, M. Application of microwave-assisted extraction to the fast extraction of plant phenolic compounds. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 2008, 41, 652–659. [Google Scholar]
- De Castro, L.M.D.; Priego-Capote, F. Soxhlet extraction: Past and present panacea. J. Chromatogr. A 2010, 1217, 2383–2389. [Google Scholar]
- Luque-Garcia, J.L.; de Castro, L.M.D. Ultrasound: A powerful tool for leaching. Trends Anal. Chem. 2003, 22, 41–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, J. Optimization of ultrasound-assisted extraction of phenolic compound from wheat bran. Food Chem. 2008, 106, 804–810. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Romdhane, M.; Gourdon, C. Investigation in solid–liquid extraction: Influence of ultrasound. Chem. Eng. J. 2002, 87, 11–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, L.; Weller, C.L. Recent advances in extraction of nutraceuticals from plants. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2006, 17, 300–312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Patist, A.; Bates, D. Ultrasonic innovations in the food industry: From the laboratory to commercial production. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2008, 9, 147–154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eskilsson, S.C.; Björklund, E. Review: Analytical-scale microwave-assisted extraction. J. Chromatogr. A 2000, 902, 227–250. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chan, C.H.; Yusoffa, R.; Ngoha, G.C.; Kung, W.-L.F. Microwave-assisted extractions of active ingredients from plants. J. Chromatogr. A 2011, 1218, 6213–6225. [Google Scholar]
- Paré, J.R.J.; Sigouin, M.; Lapointe, J. Microwave-Assisted Natural Products Extraction. U.S. Patent 5,002,784, 26 March 1991. [Google Scholar]
- Paré, J.R.J. Microwave Extraction of Volatile Oils. U.S. Patent 5,338,557, 16 August 1994. [Google Scholar]
- Fincan, M.; DeVito, F.; Dejmek, P. Pulsed electric field treatment for solid-liquid extraction of red beetroot pigment. J. Food Eng. 2004, 64, 381–388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ho, S.Y.; Mittal, G.S. Electroporation of cell membranes: Review. Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. 1996, 16, 349–362. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Angersbach, A.; Heinz, V.; Knorr, D. Effect of pulsed electric fields on cell membranes in real food systems. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. 2000, 1, 135–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gaudreau, M.P.J.; Hawkey, T.; Petry, J.; Kempkes, M. Pulsed Power Systems for Food and Wastewater Processing. Available online: http://www.divtecs.com/data/File/papers/PDF/EPPC-PEF102202_US.pdf (accessed on 21 August 2014).
- Gardossi, L.; Halling, P.J. Guidelines for reporting of biocatalytic reactions. Trends Biotechnol. 2009, 28, 171–180. [Google Scholar]
- Moura, J.M.L.N.; Campbell, K.; Mahfuz, A.; Jung, S.; Glatz, C.E.; Johnson, L. Enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction of oil and protein from soybeans and cream de-emulsification. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 2008, 85, 985–995. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Puri, M.; Sharma, D.; Barrow, C.J. Enzyme-assisted extraction of bioactives from plants. Trends Biotechnol. 2012, 30, 37–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schieber, A.; Hilt, P.; Streker, P.; Endreβ, H.-U.; Rentschler, C.; Carle, R. A new process of the combined recovery of pectin and phenolic compounds from apple waste. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2003, 4, 99–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kołodziejczyk, K.; Markowski, J.; Kosmala, M.; Król, B.; Płocharski, W. Apple pomace as a potential source of nutraceutical products. Pol. J. Food Nutr. Sci. 2007, 57, 291–295. [Google Scholar]
- Baysal, T.; Ersus, S.; Starmans, D.A. Supercritical (CO2) extraction of β-carotene and lycopene from tomato paste waste. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2000, 48, 5507–5511. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Corrales, M.; Toepfl, S.; Butza, P.; Knorrc, D.; Tauscher, B. Extraction of anthocyanins from grape by-products assisted by ultrasonics, high hydrostatic pressure or pulsed electric fields: A comparison. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2008, 9, 85–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Perva-Uzunalić, A.; Škerget, M.; Knez, Ž. Isolation of Active Ingredients from Green Tea (Fanning Bellas, China). In Proceedings of the 16th International Congress of Chemical and Process Engineering-CHISA, Prague, Czech Republic, 22–26 August 2004.
- Kotnik, P.; Škerget, M.; Knez, Ž. Supercritical fluid extraction of chamomile flower heads: Comparison with conventional extraction, kinetics and scale-up. J. Supercrit. Fluids 2007, 43, 192–198. [Google Scholar]
- Perva-Uzunalić, A.; Škerget, M.; Weinreich, B.; Knez, Ž. Extraction of chilli pepper (var. Byedige) with supercritical CO2: Effect of pressure and temperature on capsaicinoid and colour extraction efficiency. Food Chem. 2004, 87, 51–58. [Google Scholar]
- Perretti, G.; Miniati, E.; Montanari, L.; Fantozzi, P. Improving the value of rice by-products by SFE. J. Supercrit. Fluids 2003, 26, 63–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oliveira, R.; Oliveira, V.; Aracava, K.K.; da Rodrigues, C.C.E. Effects of the extraction conditions in the yield and composition of rice bran oil extracted with ethanol–A response surface approach. Food Bioprod. Process. 2012, 90, 22–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Izydorczyk, M.S.; Dexter, J.E. Barley β-glucans and arabinoxylans: Molecules structure, Physiochemical Properties, and uses in food products—A Review. Food Res. Int. 2008, 41, 850–868. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sainvitu, P.; Nott, K.; Richard, G.; Blecker, C.; Jérôme, C.; Wathelet, J.P.; Paquot, M.; Deleu, M. Structure, properties and obtention routes of flaxseed lignan secoisolariciresinol: A review. Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ. 2012, 16, 115–124. [Google Scholar]
- Oufnac, D.S. Determination of Antioxidant Capacity in Corn Germ, Wheat Germ and Wheat Bran Using Solvent and Microwave-Assisted Solvent Extraction Dissertation. Bachelor’s Thesis, Nicholls State University, Thibodaux, LA, USA, December 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Tan, Y.A.; Sambanthamurthi, R.; Sundram, K.; Wahid, M.B. Valorisation of palm by-products as functional components. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2007, 109, 380–393. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gapor, M.T.; Mohamad, S.; Rosnah, M.S.; Hazrina, A.R. Process for Recovery of Squalene from Palm Oil Products. Available online: https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/19281878/process-for-recovery-of-squalene-from-palm-oil-products (accessed on 13 June 2014).
- Gapor, M.T.; Rahman, H.A. Squalene in oils and fats. Palm Oil Dev. Malays. Palm Oil Board 2000, 32, 36–40. [Google Scholar]
- Choo, Y.M.; Yap, S.C.; Ooi, C.K.; Ng, M.H.; Ma, A.N.; Goh, S.H.; Ong, A.S.H. Recovered oil from palm-pressed fibre: A good source of natural carotenoids, vitamin E and sterols. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 1996, 73, 599–602. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kawada, T.; Leong, L.W.; Ong, A.S.; Top, A.G.M.; Tsuchiya, N.; Watanabe, H. Production of High Concentration Tocopherols and Tocotrienols from Palm Oil By-Products. U.S. Patent 5,190,618, 2 March 1993. [Google Scholar]
- Gapor, M.T. Palm vitamin E–A value-added tocotrienols-rich fraction (TRF) from palm oil. Palm Oil Dev. Palm Oil Res. Inst. Malays. 1995, 22, 7–17. [Google Scholar]
- Gapor, M.T. Production of Palm Based Tocotrienols enhanced Fraction (TEF). Available online: https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/19281803/production-of-palm-based-tocotrienols-enhanced-fraction-tef (accessed on 13 June 2014).
- Tg, S.; Rha, C.; Sambanthamurthi, R.; Sinskey, A.J.; Tan, Y.A.; Manickam Kalyana Sundram, P.; Wahid, M.B. Compositions Comprising Shikimic Acid Obtained from Oil Palm Based Materials and Method of Producing Thereof. EP Patent 2,582,654, 24 April 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Gildberg, A. Enzymes and bioactive peptides from fish waste related to fish silage, fish feed and fish sauce production. J. Aquat. Food Prod. Technol. 2004, 13, 3–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jayathilakan, K.; Sultana, K.; Radhakrishna, K.; Bawa, A.S. Utilization of byproducts and waste materials from meat, poultry and fish processing industries: A review. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2012, 49, 278–293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gutierrez, M.A. Quality Evaluation of Cheddar Cheese Containing Gamma-Oryzanol. Master’s Thesis, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA, 7 June 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Zanwara, A.A.; Hegdeb, M.V.; Bodhankara, S.L. Cardio protective activity of flax lignan concentrate extracted from seeds of Linum usitatissimum in isoprenalin induced myocardial necrosis in rats. Interdiscip. Toxicol. 2011, 4, 90–97. [Google Scholar]
- Kim, K.H.; Tsao, R.; Yang, R.; Cui, S.W. Phenolic acid profiles and antioxidant activities of wheat bran extracts and the effect of hydrolysis condition. Food Chem. 2006, 95, 466–473. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ohtsubo, K.; Suzuki, K.; Yasui, Y.; Kasumi, T. Bio-functional components in the processed pre-germinated brown rice by a twin-screw extruder. J. Food Comps. Anal. 2005, 18, 303–316. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Viscidi, K.A.; Dougherty, M.P.; Briggs, J.; Camire, M.E. Complex phenolic compounds reduce lipid oxidation in extruded oat cereals. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 2004, 37, 789–796. [Google Scholar]
- Nawirska, A.; Kwasniewska, M. Dietary fibre fractions from fruit and vegetable processing waste. Food Chem. 2005, 91, 221–225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guerard, F.; LeGal, Y. Dogfish pepsin as a rcnnet substitute. In Current Topics ill Marine Biotechnology; Miyachi, S., Karubeand, I., Ishida, Y., Eds.; Fuji Technology Press Ltd.: Tokyo, Japan, 1989; pp. 357–360. [Google Scholar]
- Raa, J. Biotechnology in aquaculture and the fish processing industry: A success story in Norway. In Advances in Fisheries Technology and Biotechnology for Increased Profitability; Voigt, M.N., Botta, J.R., Eds.; Technomic Publishing Co. Inc.: Basel, Switzerland, 1990; pp. 509–524. [Google Scholar]
- Bordenave, S.; Fruitier, I.; Ballandier, I.; Sannier, F.; Gildberg, A.; Batista, I.; Piot, J.M. HPLC preparation of fish waste hydrolysate fractions. Effect on Guinea pig ileum and ACE activity. Prep. Biochem. Biotechnol. 2002, 32, 65–77. [Google Scholar]
- Thongthai, C.; Gildberg, A. Asian fish sauce as a nutritional source. In Asian Functional Foods; Shi, J., Ho, C.-T., Shahidi, F., Eds.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Improved Utilization of Fishery By-Products as Potential Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods. Available online: http://www.fftc.agnet.org/library.php?func=view&id=20120103110652&type_id=1 (accessed on 19 May 2014).
- Analava, M.; Baishakhi, D.; Anindya, M. Recovery of omega-3 health boosters from fisheries and poultry wastes & their micro-delivery techniques. Int. J. Drug Deliv. Sci. 2014, 1, 1–13. [Google Scholar]
- Perretti, G.; Bravi, E.; Montanari, L.; Fantozzi, P. Extraction of PUFAs Rich Oils from Algae with Supercritical Carbon Dioxide. Available online: http://www.isasf.net/fileadmin/files/Docs/Versailles/Papers/N4.pdf (accessed on 22 May 2014).
- Wan, Y.; Ghost, R.; Cui, Z. High resolution plasma protein fractionation using ultrafiltration. Desalination 2002, 144, 301–306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ghost, R. Fractionating of biological macromolecules using carrier phase ultrafiltration. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2001, 74, 1–11. [Google Scholar]
- Ghotra, B.S.; Dyal, S.D.; Narine, S.S. Lipid shortenings: A review. Food Res. Int. 2002, 35, 1015–1048. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weiss, T.J. Bakery shortenings and frying shortenings. In Food Oils and Their Uses; The AVI Publishing Company, Inc.: Westport, CT, USA, 1983; pp. 153–165. [Google Scholar]
- Chrysam, M.M. Table spreads and shortenings. In Bailey’s Industrial Oil and Fat Products; Applewhite, T.H., Ed.; John Wiley and Sons: New York, NY, USA, 1985; Volume 3, pp. 41–125. [Google Scholar]
- Mayer, M.A.; Finlayson, G.; Fischman, D.; de Paz, C.; Telleriarte, M.R.; Ferrero, A.J.; Bobillo, C.; Fernández, B.E. Evaluation of the satiating properties of a nutraceutical product containing Garcinia cambogia and Ascophyllum nodosum extracts in healthy volunteers. Food Funct. 2014, 5, 773–779. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
© 2014 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
Share and Cite
Baiano, A. Recovery of Biomolecules from Food Wastes — A Review. Molecules 2014, 19, 14821-14842. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules190914821
Baiano A. Recovery of Biomolecules from Food Wastes — A Review. Molecules. 2014; 19(9):14821-14842. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules190914821
Chicago/Turabian StyleBaiano, Antonietta. 2014. "Recovery of Biomolecules from Food Wastes — A Review" Molecules 19, no. 9: 14821-14842. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules190914821