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Toxin–antitoxin (TA) systems are prevalent in bacteria and are known to regulate cellular growth in response to stress. As various functions related to TA systems have been revealed, the importance of TA systems are rapidly emerging. Here, we p...

Bacterial toxin–antitoxin (TA) systems are genetic elements, which are encoded by plasmid as well as chromosomal loci. They mediate plasmid and genomic island maintenance through post-segregational killing mechanisms but may also have milder effects,...