International Prevalence and Correlates of Psychological Stress during the Global COVID-19 Pandemic
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Background
1.2. Rationale and Hypotheses
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Respondents
2.2. Measures
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
4.1. Sociodemographic Factors and Perceived Stress
4.1.1. Gender and Age
4.1.2. Education
4.1.3. Race, Ethnicity, and Income
4.1.4. Remote Work
4.2. Personal Care/Burden and Perceived Stress
4.3. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Demographics | N | % | Mean | SD |
---|---|---|---|---|
Total | 1685 | 100% | 19.08 | 7.17 |
Age (Years) | ||||
18–24 years old | 279 | 16.56% | 20.14 | 7.26 |
25–34 years old | 429 | 25.46% | 20.57 | 7.07 |
35–44 years old | 381 | 22.61% | 19.86 | 6.75 |
45–54 years old | 310 | 18.40% | 18.1 | 6.53 |
55–64 years old | 173 | 10.27% | 16.8 | 7 |
65–74 years old | 77 | 4.57% | 16.26 | 7.49 |
75 years or older | 36 | 2.14% | 10.36 | 5.64 |
Gender | ||||
Male | 627 | 37.21% | 17.2 | 7.05 |
Female | 1047 | 62.14% | 20.17 | 7 |
Other | 11 | 0.65% | 21.91 | 7.84 |
Marital Status | ||||
Married | 841 | 49.91% | 18.42 | 7.07 |
Widowed | 20 | 1.19% | 17.05 | 9.08 |
Divorced | 88 | 5.22% | 18.55 | 6.8 |
Separated | 22 | 1.31% | 18.59 | 6.7 |
Partnered | 198 | 11.75% | 20.2 | 7.61 |
Single | 441 | 4.45% | 19.92 | 7.13 |
Other | 75 | 26.17% | 19.91 | 6.29 |
Education (Years) | ||||
High school graduate (high school diploma or equivalent including General Education Development (GED) | 79 | 4.69% | 19.24 | 8.76 |
Some college but no degree | 223 | 13.23% | 19.7 | 7.48 |
Associate degree in college (2-year) | 83 | 4.93% | 19.52 | 6.65 |
Bachelor’s degree in college (4-year) | 526 | 31.22% | 19.54 | 7.09 |
Master’s degree | 425 | 25.22% | 18.77 | 6.72 |
Doctoral degree | 255 | 15.13% | 18.1 | 7.01 |
Professional degree (Juris Doctor (JD), Medical Doctor (MD) | 94 | 5.58% | 18.54 | 7.88 |
Employment Status * | ||||
Working (full-time) | 977 | 55.07% | 18.77 | 6.94 |
Working (part-time) | 163 | 9.19% | 19.61 | 7.21 |
Unemployed | 104 | 5.86% | 20.72 | 7.39 |
Retired | 70 | 5.81% | 22.2 | 7.47 |
Not working due to disability | 103 | 1.30% | 14.51 | 7.15 |
Student | 23 | 13.59% | 22.04 | 6 |
Other | 241 | 5.24% | 20.52 | 7.17 |
Laid off or looking for work due to COVID-19 | 93 | 3.95% | 19.54 | 7.46 |
Countries * | ||||
United States of America | 869 | 51.20% | 18.99 | 7.42 |
Pakistan | 153 | 8.97% | 18.27 | 6.39 |
Canada | 88 | 5.16% | 19.9 | 7.06 |
Netherlands | 81 | 4.75% | 18.94 | 7.87 |
Germany | 53 | 3.17% | 18.25 | 6.27 |
Mexico | 47 | 3.05% | 17.87 | 6.19 |
Australia | 45 | 2.76% | 20.2 | 7.08 |
Argentina | 44 | 2.64% | 19.86 | 7.27 |
United Kingdom | 38 | 2.23% | 21.32 | 6.51 |
India | 38 | 2.23% | 19.55 | 6.31 |
China | 33 | 1.99% | 17.15 | 4.47 |
Other Countries ** | ||||
Total | 196 | 11.63% | 19.70 | 7.20 |
U.S. Regions | ||||
Northeast | 99 | 12.4% | 20.42 | 6.74 |
South | 201 | 25.3% | 19.39 | 7.6 |
Midwest | 74 | 9.32% | 18.98 | 7.96 |
West | 420 | 52.90% | 18.49 | 7.35 |
Dependents | ||||
0 | 826 | 49.02% | 19.32 | 7.48 |
1 | 242 | 14.36% | 18.62 | 7.19 |
2 | 290 | 17.21% | 19.33 | 6.82 |
3 | 166 | 9.74% | 18.63 | 6.78 |
4 | 75 | 4.40% | 19.04 | 6.64 |
5+ | 86 | 5.04% | 18.09 | 6.28 |
Remote Work | ||||
N/A | 544 | 32.28% | 18.88 | 7.61 |
<1 h | 27 | 2.68% | 17.59 | 6.42 |
1–5 h | 241 | 23.91% | 19.51 | 6.52 |
5–8 h | 447 | 44.35% | 18.98 | 6.75 |
>8 h | 293 | 29.07% | 19.14 | 7.24 |
Homeschooling | ||||
Yes | 517 | 30.68% | 19.46 | 7.61 |
No | 813 | 48.25% | 18.64 | 7.31 |
N/A | 355 | 21.07% | 19.5 | 6.59 |
Healthcare Industry Workers | ||||
Yes | 180 | 10.68% | 18.78 | 6.79 |
No | 1505 | 89.32% | 19.12 | 7.22 |
Demographics | Beta Coef | Std Error | 95% CI | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Marital Status | |||||
Widowed | −2.75 | 3.89 | −10.41 | 4.90 | 0.48 |
Divorced | −0.67 | 1.03 | −2.08 | 1.95 | 0.95 |
Separated | −1.46 | 1.87 | −5.15 | 2.22 | 0.43 |
Partnered | 0.46 | 0.82 | −1.15 | 2.06 | 0.58 |
Other | 0.29 | 1.43 | −2.51 | 3.10 | 0.21 |
Single | 0.41 | 0.72 | −1.01 | 1.82 | 0.56 |
Age | |||||
25–34 | 0.85 | 1.00 | −1.10 | 2.90 | 0.39 |
35–44 | −0.13 | 1.11 | −2.32 | 2.06 | 0.91 |
45–54 | −1.32 | 1.13 | −3.54 | 0.89 | 0.24 |
55–64 | −2.14 | 1.23 | −4.54 | 0.27 | 0.08 |
65–74 | −2.04 | 1.75 | −5.48 | 1.40 | 0.25 |
75+ | −7.13 | 3.65 | −14.29 | 0.03 | 0.05 |
Gender | |||||
Female | 3.17 | 0.51 | 2.18 | 4.16 | 0.00 |
Other | 1.19 | 2.76 | −4.23 | 6.62 | 0.67 |
Education | |||||
Some college/no degree | 3.25 | 1.65 | 0.02 | 6.48 | 0.05 |
Two-year | 3.18 | 2.02 | −0.79 | 7.16 | 0.12 |
Four-year | 3.28 | 1.58 | 0.18 | 6.38 | 0.04 |
Master’s | 2.11 | 1.60 | −1.03 | 5.26 | 0.18 |
Doctoral | 2.74 | 1.62 | −0.43 | 5.92 | 0.09 |
Professional Degree (JD/MD) | 1.47 | 1.76 | −1.98 | 4.92 | 0.40 |
Employment Status | |||||
Employed part-time | −0.25 | 0.86 | −1.93 | 1.43 | 0.77 |
Unemployed | 0.31 | 2.02 | −3.65 | 4.27 | 0.87 |
Laid off due to COVID | 1.97 | 2.09 | −2.13 | 6.08 | 0.35 |
Retired | −0.95 | 2.78 | −6.41 | 4.51 | 0.73 |
Student | 1.82 | 1.00 | −0.15 | 3.79 | 0.07 |
Other | −0.91 | 1.42 | −3.69 | 1.87 | 0.52 |
Income Bracket | |||||
10,000 to 50,000 | 1.30 | 1.06 | −0.78 | 3.39 | 0.22 |
50,000 to 75,000 | 0.18 | 1.18 | −2.12 | 2.49 | 0.87 |
75,000 to 100,000 | 0.15 | 1.25 | −2.31 | 2.61 | 0.91 |
100,000 to 125,000 | −0.47 | 1.24 | −2.90 | 1.96 | 0.71 |
125,000 to 150,000 | −0.15 | 1.25 | −2.60 | 2.31 | 0.91 |
150,000 to 175,000 | 1.74 | 1.36 | −0.92 | 4.40 | 0.20 |
175,000 to 200,000 | 1.11 | 1.32 | −1.48 | 3.71 | 0.40 |
Greater than 200,000 | 0.45 | 1.12 | −1.75 | 2.65 | 0.69 |
Composites | |||||
Personal Burden Composite | 0.66 | 0.41 | −0.15 | 1.47 | 0.11 |
Personal Care Composite | −0.39 | 0.06 | −0.50 | −0.28 | 0.00 |
Family or Friends with COVID | 0.60 | 0.55 | −0.48 | 1.68 | 0.28 |
Hours of Daily Remote Work | −0.08 | 0.33 | −0.73 | 0.57 | 0.80 |
Change in Work Expectations | −0.40 | 0.14 | −0.67 | −0.12 | 0.01 |
Increase in personal care Composite | −1.32 | 0.52 | −2.35 | −0.30 | 0.01 |
U.S. Regions | |||||
Northeast | 0.45 | 0.97 | −1.46 | 2.36 | 0.64 |
South | −0.92 | 0.87 | −2.62 | 0.79 | 0..29 |
Midwest | −0.15 | 1.16 | −2.42 | 2.12 | 0.89 |
West | −1.36 | 0.72 | −2.76 | 0.05 | 0.06 |
Country (n > 30) | |||||
Pakistan | −2.43 | 1.09 | −4.58 | −0.28 | 0.03 |
Germany | −4.63 | 1.55 | −7.68 | −1.58 | 0.00 |
Canada | 0.75 | 1.17 | −1.54 | 3.04 | 0.52 |
India | 0.08 | 2.02 | −3.89 | 4.04 | 0.97 |
Netherlands | −1.77 | 1.38 | −4.48 | 0.94 | 0.20 |
Mexico | −2.75 | 1.42 | −5.48 | −0.03 | 0.05 |
United Kingdom | −1.53 | 1.99 | −4.33 | 1.27 | 0.28 |
China | −1.68 | 1.47 | −5.59 | 2.23 | 0.40 |
Australia | −0.02 | 2.06 | −2.93 | 2.88 | 0.98 |
Argentina | 2.35 | 2.86 | −1.69 | 6.41 | 0.25 |
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Adamson, M.M.; Phillips, A.; Seenivasan, S.; Martinez, J.; Grewal, H.; Kang, X.; Coetzee, J.; Luttenbacher, I.; Jester, A.; Harris, O.A.; et al. International Prevalence and Correlates of Psychological Stress during the Global COVID-19 Pandemic. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 9248. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17249248
Adamson MM, Phillips A, Seenivasan S, Martinez J, Grewal H, Kang X, Coetzee J, Luttenbacher I, Jester A, Harris OA, et al. International Prevalence and Correlates of Psychological Stress during the Global COVID-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(24):9248. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17249248
Chicago/Turabian StyleAdamson, Maheen M., Angela Phillips, Srija Seenivasan, Julian Martinez, Harlene Grewal, Xiaojian Kang, John Coetzee, Ines Luttenbacher, Ashley Jester, Odette A. Harris, and et al. 2020. "International Prevalence and Correlates of Psychological Stress during the Global COVID-19 Pandemic" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 24: 9248. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17249248