Previous Article in Journal
Trends and Inequities in the Burden of Depressive Disorders Among Adolescents and Young Adults in the Western Pacific, 1990–2021: Findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study, 2021
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Future
Volume 3
Issue 2
10.3390/future3020011
future-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Sport Emotions, Anxiety, Task and Ego Orientation in Pakistani Adolescents: Mediating the Role of Coaching in Athlete Purpose

by
Yumna Ali
1,*,
Yasuhiro Kotera
2,3,4,
Matthew Cotterill
5,
Ann-Marie Edwards
6 and
Stephen Palmer
7
1
Department of Psychology, Hazara University, Mansehra 21120, Pakistan
2
Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
3
Center for Infectious Disease Education and Research, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
4
Department of Social Sciences, Azerbaijan University, AZ1007 Baku, Azerbaijan
5
College of Health, Psychology and Social Care, University of Derby, Derby DE22 1GB, UK
6
University of Essex Online, Colchester CO4 3SQ, UK
7
National Academy of Coaching Psychology, London SE3 7DH, UK
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Future 2025, 3(2), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/future3020011
Submission received: 9 December 2024 / Revised: 3 April 2025 / Accepted: 3 June 2025 / Published: 6 June 2025
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
(1) Background: Adolescent health and well-being are associated with sports and physical education activities. Novel therapies for athletics training, sporting formations, and physical culture are important. In areas where sports facilities are scarce and not cost-effective, they can lead to poorer physical and mental well-being in adolescents. Emotions related to sports, somatic anxiety, worry, and concentration disruption aligned with task and ego orientation have been under-researched in Pakistan. (2) Methods: A sample of 830 adolescents between the ages of 14 and 19 years were recruited from Pakistan’s sports training center through purposive sampling. Sport-specific emotions, anxiety, task and ego orientation, and coaching athlete purpose (CAP) were measured. (3) Results: Regression analysis showed that different dimensions of sports anxiety (somatic trait anxiety, worry, and concentration disruption) have a significant effect on the task and ego orientation of sports education students. The Hayes process macro analysis shows that CAP significantly mediates between sports emotions and orientation. (4) Conclusions: It is important to introduce Rational Emotive Behavior Coaching and integrate ontological health and well-being for coaching in the sports field.

1. Introduction

Sports psychology is an important aspect of psychological sciences. However, the importance of sports psychological constructs is under-researched in Pakistan. We considered a sample of adolescents who participated in pentathlon training. Pentathlon is a niche elite sport; hence, there is a dearth of literature related to this particular sport. The aim of this study is to evaluate sport-specific emotions, anxiety experienced by athletes, task and ego orientation, and coach athletic purpose in adolescents who are part of pentathlon sports.
Prior studies have been conducted on specific sports and games. Studies have focused on cricket [1], football [2,3], handball [4,5], and hockey [6]. However, there are no studies that include modern pentathlon sports such as fencing (one-touch épée), swimming, equestrian jumping, laser running, obstacle racing, and running as per the Olympic program standards governed under the Union Internationale de Pentathlon Moderne in Pakistan.
The role of coaching is integral to the promotion of sports at the individual, group, and organizational levels. The CAP is operationally defined as the stable intention of a coach to achieve targeted goals [1]. This construct focuses on athletic outcomes to assess coaching effectiveness. It builds on the innate qualities of competence, confidence, connection, and character [7]. Horn’s Coaching Effectiveness model posits that the behavior of coaches depends on their beliefs about their impact on athletes’ final performances [8]. According to athlete-centered coaching, Foucauldian-based research suggests that power dynamics are essential in sports governance, namely disempowerment, discipline, and docility [9].
According to Nicholl’s model of “Achievement Motivation”, goal achievement depends on consistency and the appropriateness of behavior [10]. Task and goal orientation refers to the personal expertise of winning in sports. It covers perceptions of using aggressive tactics within interscholastic athletics. Task orientation is when an athlete is focused on the specific sport itself, whereas ego orientation is the reliance on an athlete’s own skill set and expertise about the sport. A sample of young ice hockey players, with autonomous support from coaches, can foster a task-oriented environment, which is beneficial for sports-person retention. In distant sports education, task and ego orientation were found to have a positive association with sports perception in a sample of curling athletes [11]. In a study of mega sports events in South Asian games, women were rated higher in task orientation, whereas men were rated higher in ego orientation, posing significant gender differences [12]. Regarding the use of performance-enhancement supplements, one study showed that ego orientation is related to supplement enhancement use and not task orientation. Sports persons and athletes who are more ego-oriented are more likely to use performance-enhancement supplements and believe that they are effective in a range of sports, including athletics, weightlifting, and soccer [13]. According to the incremental model of doping behavior, sports individuals are more inclined to use caffeine, creatine, and sodium bicarbonate [14]. The tendency to use sports supplements is difficult to quantify owing to the self-presentation bias [15]. Dietary supplementation use has been shown to act as a gateway to banned substance use [16,17]. The further use of such behavior may be due to the preceding impact of sports anxiety.
Sports anxiety is related to somatic and cognitive traits, constant worry, and concentration disruption, among which concentration disruption is the most significant indicator of sports anxiety in college-level basketball players at college level [18].
The somatic part relates to physiological reactions in sports, such as tremors, muscular fatigue, and digestive issues. The cognitive aspect is related to occupied thinking patterns related to coping. In a sample of collegiate judo athletes, where there was a higher rate of sports anxiety and lower psychological capital, mental skills training was advised [19]. In a study of combat sports, sportspersonship traits (adherence to rules, opposing parties’ regard, and game planning) were negatively impacted by sports anxiety [20].
Sports anxiety is related to various types of emotions. Sports emotions relate to five basic synthesized emotions [21]. These emotions include anxiety (uneasy, tense, nervous, apprehensive, and anxious), dejection (upset, sad, unhappy, disappointed, and dejected), excitement (exhilaration, excitement, enthusiasm, and energy), anger (irritation, furious, annoyed, and anger), and happiness (pleased, joyful, cheerful, and happy). Emotions of excitement and happiness lead to improved sports performance [22], whereas negative emotions such as anger and dejection could lead to increased worry and poor performance [23]. Moreover, Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy can help sports players through emotional regulation and logical decision-making [24].
CAP is the consistent aim of interpersonal, intrapersonal, and professional knowledge to improve competence, confidence, connection, and character [24]. A component of competence is sport-specific tactical skills, leading to better health and fitness and sporting habits. Confidence is defined as an intrinsic sense of overall self-worth. The component of connection refers to positive bonds and social links formed with social agents inside and outside of sports.

Significance of the Study, Objective, and Hypotheses

This study aimed to explore how adolescent athletes feel sports-specific emotions, anxiety, task and ego orientation, and the role of coach athletes. It is integral to understand the relationship between adolescent sports learners and their perceptions of coaching from their respective sports coaches. This will help to inculcate coaching skills in safer sports environments that will help adolescents emotionally, physically, and psychologically [25]. They can further learn to balance increases in sports emotions to manifest focused goals. Presently, formal training interventions for coaches and athletes have been under-researched for the domain of pentathlon sports in Pakistan. Three hypotheses were established.
H1. 
There is a significant association among sports emotions, sports anxiety, task and ego orientation, and CAP.
H2. 
There is a significant effect of sports anxiety on task and ego orientation in sports adolescents.
H3. 
There is a significant mediating effect of CAP between task and ego orientation and sports emotions in adolescents.

2. Methods

2.1. Participants

This study was conducted using purposive sampling from 830 adolescents, from which 560 adolescents’ responses were collected and retained for the final study, with a response rate of 67.4%. As per Gpower metrics, for the correlation bivariate normal model, with an error probability of 0.01, the minimum sample size was 386.
Of the sample, 399 were males and 161 were females. The participants were engaged in one of five sports: shooting, swimming, laser running, fencing, or horse riding. Fencing was the most popular (28.2%), followed by laser running (28.0%), swimming (22.9%), shooting (14.5%), and horse riding (6.3%). From the total sample of 560 adolescents, n = 191 showed a tendency to use performance-enhancement sports supplements compared to n = 369 who did not [reporting on the sample representativeness, compared to the general adolescent population in Pakistan, our sample probably has more males].

2.2. Variables and Measures

The following tests were used in this study: The Sports Emotion Questionnaire (SEQ) is a sports-specific measure that includes precompetitive emotions of anger, anxiety, excitement, dejection, and happiness [24]. The scale is scored on a 4-point Likert scale: 0 = not at all to 4 = extremely. Anxiety is related to the emotions of uneasiness, tension, nervousness, apprehensiveness, and anxiety. The dejection component is a synthesis of being upset, sadness, unhappiness, disappointment, and dejection. The excitement component comprises exhilaration, excitement, enthusiasm, and energy. The anger component consists of irritation, fury, annoyance, and anger. Happiness was related to pleasure, joy, cheerfulness, and happiness. Cronbach’s alpha for the scale ranged from α = 0.74 to 0.90.
The Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS) is a psychometric survey that covers the three dimensions of somatic and cognitive traits of anxiety, worry, and concentration disruption [1]. The scale is scored on a 4-point Likert scale where 1 = not at all and 4 = very much so. Some of the items include, “my heart pounds before competition”, “my body feels tight”, and “it is hard to concentrate on the game”. Cronbach’s alpha for the scale ranges from α = 0.81–0.91.
The Task and Ego Orientation in Sports Questionnaire (TEOSQ) is a unidimensional scale that measures successful feelings during sporting activity [26]. The scale is scored on a 5-point Likert scale: 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Some of the items include “the others can’t do as well as me”, “I’m the best”, “I learn a new skill and it makes me want to practice more”. The scale has a high internal consistency that ranges from α = 0.78–0.81.
The Coaching Athlete Purpose Scale (CAPS) is a four-dimensional scale that measures coaching and athletic-centered outcomes [27]. The four subscales include competence, confidence, connection, and character. The scale is scored on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 = does not align to 5 = aligns extremely well. Some of the items are “teaching my athletes how to develop sport-specific technical skills”, “teaching my athletes how to develop sport-specific tactical skills”, and “teaching my athletes how to develop resilience”. The scale is reported to have moderately high internal consistency with α = 0.70.
The purpose of coaching athletes is defined as a stable and long-sighted goal that is practiced multiple times to win a game. Coaching behavior was studied in terms of passion, as coaches are often highly motivated [28]. There are various skills involved, inclusive of confidence, health, motivation, and focus, that coaches holistically work towards in order to transfer skills onto their athletes.

2.3. Data Analysis and Procedure

The data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS v.25). Correlational, regression, and mediation analyses were performed. Data were obtained for descriptive and inferential statistics. The quantitative data were assessed for normality using skewness and kurtosis values that were close to normal. If the data were substantially skewed, they were adjusted using log10, and if they were minutely skewed, they were adjusted through the SQRT command. Therefore, parametric testing was performed. A reliability analysis was conducted to establish the psychometric properties of each scale and its subscales. Pearson’s product-moment correlation was used, followed by regression analysis. A mediation analysis was conducted using Hayes’s process.
The present study was approved under the protocol of the Department of Psychology, Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan. The study also followed the protocols of Punjab Sports, which is devoted to the practice of different sports, and was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki [29]. The aims of this study were understood and explained to all participants who provided their consent. The inclusion criteria of the study consisted only of participants who were formally schooled and educated in English.

3. Results

The data are shown in Table 1. The instruments performed well in the Pakistani sports adolescent sample.
Table 2 shows the association between variables. Sports emotions show a strong correlation with somatic anxiety (r = 0.791, p = 0.05), worry (r = 0.784, p = 0.05), concentration and disruption (r = 0.708, p = 0.05), task and ego orientation (r = −0.700, p = 0.05), coaching related to sport-general competence (r = −0.784, p = 0.05), coaching related to confidence (r = −0.664, p = 0.05), coaching related to connection (r = −0.690, p = 0.05), and coaching related to character (r = −0.675, p = 0.05).
Table 3 shows multiple regression analysis to explore the effect of sports anxiety (somatic anxiety, worry, and concentration and disruption on task and ego orientation). It is shown that there is a significant negative effect of sports anxiety on sports and ego orientation. There is a 58.9% variance in task and ego orientation, while F has statistical significance at p < 0.001 (R2 = 0.589, F(3, 566) = 265.239.
Table 4 shows the mediation analysis, indicating that coaching athlete purpose (competence, confidence, character, and connection) significantly mediates between sports emotions and task and ego orientation (β = 0.512, p < 0.001). The direct effect on task and ego orientation for coaching athletic purpose considering variables such as competence, confidence, character, and connection was statistically significant (β = −0.204, p < 0.001). The indirect effect on task and ego orientation through competence (β = −0.095, p < 0.001), confidence (β = −0.082, p < 0.001), connection (β = −0.043, p < 0.001), and character (β = −0.088, p < 0.001) can be seen.

4. Discussion

This study aimed to evaluate sport-specific emotions, the anxiety experienced by athletes, task and ego orientation, and CAP. According to the first hypothesis, the findings support that there is a significant association among sports emotions, sports anxiety, task and ego orientation, and CAP. Studies show that athletes are considered to be anxiogenic and hence correlated conversely with sports performance [30]. Goal orientations help to lower negative emotions in athletes, especially females [31]. The second hypothesis is supported as findings show that there is a significant effect of sports anxiety on the task and ego orientation of sports adolescents. It is similar to the finding that sports anxiety negatively affects goal orientation during individual sports, compared to team sports performance [32]. Moreover, if athletes have trained in an ego-oriented climate, they are more likely to exhibit higher levels of sports anxiety as they have a greater fear of failure [33].
The third hypothesis supports that there is a significant effect of CAP in mediating the relationship between task and ego orientation and sports emotions of adolescents. The findings indicate that the role of coaching helps to resolve intra-team conflict by enhancing team cohesiveness [34]. The work of a professional sports coach comes with different responsibilities that are linked to athletes’ mental health.
The results show that the age group of 14–19 years are participants of pentathlon sports such as laser running, swimming, horse riding, shooting, and fencing. However, the expense of such sporting initiatives is exuberant and expensive around the world [35]. And rarely are these activities at the disposal of sports enthusiasts. The dichotomous question related to the use of performance-enhancement sports supplements showed that most adolescents would prefer not to use supplements.
The tendency to use performance-enhancement supplements is attributed to goal- and ego-oriented behavior as per the incremental model of doping behavior [36]. Thus, organizations working towards anti-supplement use behavior must approach the ego-oriented behaviors of sports people and athletes. Methods to emphasize include disseminating training to sports psychologists and coaches to instruct players about fair play and undermining the importance of cut-throat victories [37]. An intervention that can be novel in the sports field of Pakistan is Rational Emotive Behavior Coaching for the regulation of perfectionism and competitive anxiety faced by athletes [38]. Furthermore, ontological cognitive behavioral team coaching can be used in combination with the former. The efficacy of these specific coaching methods and several effective trainings [38] are under-researched in sports teams within the context of developing countries [39]. The role of the coach must lead to reduced competitive anxiety in young athletes to improve their long-term performance and suppress their unhealthy competitive attitudes that manifest into ego orientation [40]. Similarly, if positive sports emotions are promoted for healthy competition, it will reduce ego orientation. That is why friendly matches are organized for adolescents. Different cultures have distinct coaching behaviors [41]. Chinese athletes encounter autocratic coaching, which, in turn, leads to an increase in competitive anxiety, whilst American athletes receive democratic coaching. The coaching behavioral style used by Pakistani sports coaches for international games is, as of now, under-researched [42]. Moreover, task orientation is linked to motivation and mediates emotions of happiness and excitement [43]. In a similar study, ego orientation is related to unpleasant emotions of anxiety, dejection, and anger [44]. Club management teams must be promoted in cultures to further create job opportunities for trained coaches and sports psychologists [45]. To embed professional coaching training sessions would require the analysis of mindsets of athletes that differ globally. High athletic growth and a low fixed mindset can help predict sports performance and coaching effectiveness. Furthermore, as per the Self-Determination Theory, the emotional experiences of young athletes can be improved through supportive interventions that further promote intensive training centers.

5. Limitations

Some limitations must be taken into account. The present study reached out to a sample of adolescents within a strict age bracket who were well-versed and educated in English only. This study is a correlational cross-sectional study that poses a hindrance to causality inference. Thus, any generalizations must consider these limitations. Research designs for future studies can include quasi-experimental studies for coaching interventions to improve the robustness of data. The possibility of including young, intercountry athletes could enhance the study’s results. Moreover, it is important to take into account the personality traits of sports athletes that may affect the constructs studied. Moreover, the cultural effects on coaching style in Pakistan could be a potential limitation of the study.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Y.A., Y.K. and S.P.; methodology, Y.A., Y.K. and M.C.; software, Y.A. and A.-M.E.; validation, all authors; formal analysis, Y.A., Y.K., A.-M.E. and M.C.; investigation, Y.K., M.C., A.-M.E. and S.P.; resources, Y.A., Y.K. and A.-M.E.; data curation, Y.A.; writing, Y.A., Y.K., M.C. and A.-M.E.; review, Y.K., S.P. and A.-M.E.; project administration, Y.A., Y.K., M.C. and S.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This study was conducted by the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan, and the Sports Board Punjab, Pakistan on the date of 10 November 2024.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all participants in this study.

Data Availability Statement

Data will be available upon request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Yukhymenko-Lescroart, M.A.; Gilbert, W.D. Development and Validation of the Coaching Athlete Purpose Scale (CAPS). Psychol. Sport Exerc. 2021, 56, 101960. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Fayyaz, M.U.; Amjad, A.; Anjum, A.F. Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Performance among Cricketers in Pakistan. J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. 2018, 8, 33–41. [Google Scholar]
  3. Rubab, A.; Yasmeen Iqbal, D.S.K. Impact of External Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation of Elite and Non-Elite Women Cricketers of Pakistan. J. Posit. Sch. Psychol. 2022, 6, 10745–10756. [Google Scholar]
  4. Qazi, A.N.; Gill, S.A.; Zafar, K. A Comparative Study between Effects Coping Strategies of Pakistan & Yemen Handball Players. Hum. Nat. J. Soc. Sci. 2023, 4, 276–283. [Google Scholar]
  5. Ahmad, M.T.; Ikram, S.; Masood, A. Comparative Analysis of Sport Psychology of Sportsman in Information Technology and Human Psychology. J. Sport Psychol. 2022, 31, 103–112. [Google Scholar]
  6. Hazar, K. The Relationshıp Between Injury Anxiety and Forgiveness Flexıbility: A Research for Elite Field Hockey Athletes. Pak. J. Med. Health Sci. 2021, 15, 1673–1679. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Yukhymenko-Lescroart, M.A.; Sharma, G. Examining the Factor Structure of the Revised Sense of Purpose Scale (SOPS-2) with Adults. Appl. Res. Qual. Life 2020, 15, 1203–1222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Horn, T.S. Coaching Effectiveness in the Sport Domain. In Advances in Sport Psychology; Human Kinetics: Champaign, IL, USA, 2008. [Google Scholar]
  9. Duda, J.L.; Olson, L.K.; Templin, T.J. The Relationship of Task and Ego Orientation to Sportsmanship Attitudes and the Perceived Legitimacy of Injurious Acts. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 1991, 62, 79–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Vahdet, A. During the Pandemic Period, the Determination and Relationship of Curling Athletes with Their Task and Ego Orientation and Personality Situations and the Remote Support Situations They Received. JEI 2020, 6, 297–321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Hurst, P.; Ring, C.; Kavussanu, M. Ego Orientation Is Related to Doping Likelihood via Sport Supplement Use and Sport Supplement Beliefs. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 2022, 22, 1734–1742. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Maughan, R.J.; Burke, L.M.; Dvorak, J.; Larson-Meyer, D.E.; Peeling, P.; Phillips, S.M.; Rawson, E.S.; Walsh, N.P.; Garthe, I.; Geyer, H.; et al. IOC Consensus Statement: Dietary Supplements and the High-Performance Athlete. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2018, 28, 104–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Hurst, P.; Ring, C.; Kavussanu, M. An Evaluation of UK Athletics’ Clean Sport Programme in Preventing Doping in Junior Elite Athletes. Perform. Enhanc. Health 2020, 7, 100155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Ring, C.; Kavussanu, M.; Gürpınar, B.; Whitehead, J.; Mortimer, H. Basic Values Predict Unethical Behavior in Sport: The Case of Athletes’ Doping Likelihood. Ethics Behav. 2022, 32, 90–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Smoll, F.L.; Smith, R.E.; Cumming, S.P. Effects of Coach and Parent Training on Performance Anxiety in Young Athletes: A Systemic Approach. J. Youth Dev. 2007, 2, 19–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Lee, T.-I.; Wang, M.-Y.; Huang, B.-R.; Hsu, C.-Y.; Chien, C.-Y. Effects of Psychological Capital and Sport Anxiety on Sport Performance in Collegiate Judo Athletes. Am. J. Health Behav. 2022, 46, 197–208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Hurst, P. Are Dietary Supplements a Gateway to Doping? A Retrospective Survey of Athletes’ Substance Use. Subst. Use Misuse 2023, 58, 365–370. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Mojtahedi, D.; Dagnall, N.; Denovan, A.; Clough, P.; Dewhurst, S.; Hillier, M.; Papageorgiou, K.; Perry, J. Competition Anxiety in Combat Sports and the Importance of Mental Toughness. Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 713. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  19. Vast, R.L.; Young, R.L.; Thomas, P.R. Emotions in Sport: Perceived Effects on Attention, Concentration, and Performance. Aust. Psychol. 2010, 45, 132–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Wang, Y.; Wu, C.-H.; Chen, L.H. A Longitudinal Investigation of the Role of Perceived Autonomy Support from Coaches in Reducing Athletes’ Experiential Avoidance: The Mediating Role of Subjective Vitality. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 2023, 64, 102304. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Gabrys, K.; Wontorczyk, A. A Psychological Profile of Elite Polish Short Track Athletes: An Analysis of Temperamental Traits and Impulsiveness. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 3446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Jones, M.V.; Lane, A.M.; Bray, S.R.; Uphill, M.; Catlin, J. Development and Validation of the Sport Emotion Questionnaire. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 2005, 27, 407–431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Smith, R.E.; Smoll, F.L.; Cumming, S.P.; Grossbard, J.R. Measurement of Multidimensional Sport Performance Anxiety in Children and Adults: The Sport Anxiety Scale-2. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 2006, 28, 479–501. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Duda, J.L. Relationship between Task and Ego Orientation and the Perceived Purpose of Sport among High School Athletes. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 1989, 11, 318–335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Cotterill, M.; Kotera, Y. Making Sense of the Relationship between Physical Activity and Mental Health: An Ecological View of Physical Activity. Int. J. Spa Wellness 2023, 6, 380–389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Sharma, G.; Yukhymenko-Lescroart, M. Validation of the Revised Sense of Purpose Scale with Emerging Adults. J. Character Educ. 2019, 15, 39. [Google Scholar]
  27. Tyebkhan, G. Declaration of Helsinki: The Ethical Cornerstone of Human Clinical Research. Indian. J. Dermatol. Venereol. Leprol. 2003, 69, 245–247. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  28. Rocha, V.V.S.; Osório, F.D.L. Associations between Competitive Anxiety, Athlete Characteristics and Sport Context: Evidence from a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Arch. Clin. Psychiatry 2018, 45, 67–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Assar, A.; Weinberg, R.; Ward, R.M.; Vealey, R.S. The Mediating Role of Self-Compassion on the Relationship Between Goal Orientation and Sport-Confidence. Sport Psychol. 2022, 36, 242–250. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Chappelet, J.-L. The Century-Long Struggle for the Leadership of World Sport. Int. J. Hist. Sport 2024, 41, 111–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Petróczi, A. The Doping Mindset—Part I: Implications of the Functional Use Theory on Mental Representations of Doping. Perform. Enhanc. Health 2013, 2, 153–163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Bjarnadóttir, G.J. Sport-Related Performance Anxiety and Goal Orientation in Team and Individual Sports. Bachelor’s Thesis, Reykjavík University, Reykjavík, Iceland, 2023. Available online: https://skemman.is/handle/1946/44634 (accessed on 2 June 2025).
  33. Gustafsson, H.; Davis, P.; Davis, L. Fear of Failure in Athletes: Fanning the Fire of Sport Desire or Burning Out? In Routledge International Handbook of Failure; Routledge: Abingdon, UK, 2023; pp. 53–66. [Google Scholar]
  34. Weiss, M.R.; Moehnke, H.J.; Kipp, L.E. A United Front: Coach and Teammate Motivational Climate and Team Cohesion among Female Adolescent Athletes. Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach. 2021, 16, 875–885. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Kavussanu, M.; Hurst, P.; Yukhymenko-Lescroart, M.; Galanis, E.; King, A.; Hatzigeorgiadis, A.; Ring, C. A Moral Intervention Reduces Doping Likelihood in British and Greek Athletes: Evidence From a Cluster Randomized Control Trial. Int. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 2021, 43, 125–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Hultgren, U.; Palmer, S.; O’Riordan, S. Can Cognitive Behavioural Team Coaching Increase Well-Being? Coach. Psychol. 2013, 9, 100–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Kassim, A.F.M.; Ramalan, A.M.; Ahmad, M.F.; Japilus, S.J.M.; Radzi, J.A.; Omar, S.S.S. Coaching Effectiveness and Coach–Athlete Relationship Model Offers Possibilities Solution for Competitive Anxiety of Young Athletes. Malays. J. Mov. Health Exerc. 2022, 11, 15–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. King, A.M.; Plateau, C.R.; Turner, M.J.; Young, P.; Barker, J.B. A Systematic Review of the Nature and Efficacy of Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy Interventions. PLoS ONE 2024, 19, e0306835. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Kotera, Y. A Qualitative Investigation into the Experience of Neuro-Linguistic Programming Certification Training among Japanese Career Consultants. Br. J. Guid. Counc. 2018, 46, 39–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Ruiz, M.C.; Appleton, P.R.; Duda, J.L.; Bortoli, L.; Robazza, C. Social Environmental Antecedents of Athletes’ Emotions. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4997. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Kotera, Y.; Ronaldson, A.; Hayes, D.; Hunter-Brown, H.; McPhilbin, M.; Dunnett, D.; Jebara, T.; Takhi, S.; Masuda, T.; Camacho, E.; et al. 28-Country Global Study on Associations between Cultural Characteristics and Recovery College Fidelity. npj Ment. Health Res. 2024, 3, 46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Vella-Fondacaro, D.; Romano-Smith, S. The Impact of a Psychological Skills Training and Mindfulness-Based Intervention on the Mental Toughness, Competitive Anxiety, and Coping Skills of Futsal Players—A Longitudinal Convergent Mixed-Methods Design. Sports 2023, 11, 162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Kotera, Y.; Conway, E.; Green, P. Construction And Factorial Validation of a Short Version of the Academic Motivation Scale. Br. J. Guid. Counc. 2023, 51, 274–283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. McNeil, D.G.; Phillips, W.J.; Scoggin, S.A. Examining the Importance of Athletic Mindset Profiles for Level of Sport Performance and Coping. Int. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 2024, 22, 995–1011. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Cece, V.; Guillet-Descas, E.; Tessier, D.; Martinent, G. Athletes’ Motivational and Emotional Outcomes Related to a Need-Supportive Intervention in Intensive Training Centers. J. Appl. Sport Psychol. 2022, 34, 1206–1226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Table 1. Psychometric properties.
Table 1. Psychometric properties.
VariablesKαMSDSkewnessKurtosis
SET220.66366.618.441−0.129−1.270
SST40.83712.314.52000.000−1.324
SWT60.80219.056.100−0.253−1.306
SCT50.81816.215.159−0.375−1.075
TET130.70845.446.1730.016−0.846
SGT60.68616.796.1420.184−1.245
CONFT30.8688.323.3860.296−0.933
CONNT120.8668.393.3930.208−1.005
CHART30.8678.563.3040.216−0.919
Note. K = number of items; α = Cronbach’s alpha; M = mean; SD = standard deviation; SET = sports emotions; SST = somatic anxiety; SWT = worry; SCT = concentration and disruption; TET = task and ego orientation; SGT = coaching purpose related to general sports competence; CONFT = coaching purpose related to confidence; CONNT = coaching purpose related to connection; CHART = coaching purpose related to character.
Table 2. Correlation between SEQ, SAS, TESOQ, and CAPS.
Table 2. Correlation between SEQ, SAS, TESOQ, and CAPS.
Variables1234567891011121314
1. ANX 0.818 **−0.610 **0.831 **−0.788 **0.895 **0.804 **0.769 **0.674 **−0.726 **−0.767 **−0.644 **−0.721 **−0.670 **
2. DEJ −0.563 **0.831 **−0.823 **0.890 **0.818 **0.810 **0.720 **−0.705 **−0.784 **−0.679 **−0.705 **−0.687 **
3. EXIC −0.647 **0.602 **−0.415 **−0.592 **−0.526 **−0.409 **0.555 **0.526 **0.493 **0.510 **0.485 **
4. ANG −0.816 **0.881 **0.814 **0.796 **0.698 **−0.734 **−0.815 **−0.720 **−7.21 **−0.710 **
5. HAP −0.694 **−0.780 **−0.766 **−0.671 **0.681 **0.757 **0.656 **0.715 **0.667 **
6. SET 0.791 **0.784 **0.708 **−0.700 **−0.784 **−0.664 **−0.690 **−0.675 **
7. SST 0.732 **0.690 **−0.708 **−0.773 **−0.687 **−0.703 **−0.683 **
8. SWT 0.737 **−0.700 **−0.748 **−0.665 **−0.659 **−0.647 **
9. SCT −0.661 **−0.649 **−0.591 **−0.586 **−0.575 **
10. TET 0.686 **0.618 **0.611 **0.623 **
11. SGT 0.699 **0.668 **0.710 **
12. CONFT 0.664 **0.514 **
13. CONNT 0.619 **
14. CHART
Note: ANX = anxiety; DEJ = dejection; EXIC = excitement; ANG = anger; HAP = happiness; SET = sports emotions; SST = somatic anxiety; SWT = worry; SCT = concentration and disruption; TET = task and ego orientation; SGT = coaching purpose related to general sports competence; CONFT = coaching purpose related to confidence; CONNT = coaching purpose related to connection; CHART = coaching purpose related to character. ** p = 0.03.
Table 3. Multiple regression analysis for the effects of SST, SWT, and SCT on TET.
Table 3. Multiple regression analysis for the effects of SST, SWT, and SCT on TET.
Variables βtpULLL
Constant -103.2250.00059.77562.094
SST −0.356−8.4340.000−0.600−0.373
SWT −0.292−6.4600.000−0.386−0.206
SCT −0.199−4.5830.000−0.338−0.138
R20.589
F265.239
Note. SST = somatic anxiety; SWT = worry; SCT = concentration and disruption; TET = task and ego orientation.
Table 4. Mediation effects of SGT, CONF, CONN, and CHAR between SET and TET.
Table 4. Mediation effects of SGT, CONF, CONN, and CHAR between SET and TET.
Indirect Effect(s)(Coefficient Effect)SEpULLL
Total−0.3080.0320.000−0.371−0.246
SGT−0.0950.0310.000−0.158−0.036
CONFT−0.0820.0200.000−0.124−0.042
CONNT−0.0430.0230.000−0.0890.000
CHART−0.0880.0220.000−0.130−0.045
Direct Effect−0.2040.0360.000−0.133−0.274
Total effect0.5120.0220.000−0.468−0.555
Note: SET = sport emotions; TET = task and ego orientation; SGT = coaching purpose related to general sport competence; CONFT = coaching purpose related to confidence; CONNT = coaching purpose related to connection; CHART = coaching purpose related to character.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Ali, Y.; Kotera, Y.; Cotterill, M.; Edwards, A.-M.; Palmer, S. Sport Emotions, Anxiety, Task and Ego Orientation in Pakistani Adolescents: Mediating the Role of Coaching in Athlete Purpose. Future 2025, 3, 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/future3020011

AMA Style

Ali Y, Kotera Y, Cotterill M, Edwards A-M, Palmer S. Sport Emotions, Anxiety, Task and Ego Orientation in Pakistani Adolescents: Mediating the Role of Coaching in Athlete Purpose. Future. 2025; 3(2):11. https://doi.org/10.3390/future3020011

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ali, Yumna, Yasuhiro Kotera, Matthew Cotterill, Ann-Marie Edwards, and Stephen Palmer. 2025. "Sport Emotions, Anxiety, Task and Ego Orientation in Pakistani Adolescents: Mediating the Role of Coaching in Athlete Purpose" Future 3, no. 2: 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/future3020011

APA Style

Ali, Y., Kotera, Y., Cotterill, M., Edwards, A.-M., & Palmer, S. (2025). Sport Emotions, Anxiety, Task and Ego Orientation in Pakistani Adolescents: Mediating the Role of Coaching in Athlete Purpose. Future, 3(2), 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/future3020011

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop