Natural Guardians of the Balkans: Entheogens in Indigenous Practices and Their Implications for Well-Being and Therapy

Abstract

Psychedelic plants and fungi have been traditionally used in many cultures as part of ritual ceremonies and ancient medicinal treatments. In some regions, these psychoactive plants have already entered mainstream discourse through popular literature and art. Today, numerous academic and medical institutions are establishing dedicated departments to examine the benefits and risks of psychedelic-assisted treatments. Entheogens in healing practices and herbal medicine are part of Slavic cultural heritage. However, due to the predominantly oral transmission of this knowledge, there is a significant lack of written sources and a profound gap in documentation regarding entheogen use on the Balkan Peninsula, where many psychoactive plants and mushrooms grow in their natural habitat. Our work aims to bridge indigenous knowledge systems with contemporary therapeutic discourse, while advocating for sustainable, inclusive, and culturally respectful research practices. This review manuscript presents information on Slavic ancient entheogens, and calls for further multidisciplinary, integrative approaches in researching psychoactive plants and mushrooms of the Balkans. Our paper includes the ethnobotanical uses of native Balkan entheogens, outlines the pharmacological mechanisms of their main active compounds, and discusses their impacts on social behavior, mental health, and overall well-being. We also examine their therapeutic potential and risks, contributing to the contemporary understanding of psychoactive and psychedelic use in mental health treatment and beyond, as tools for life enhancement to improve quality of life and well-being.

1. Introduction

In modern times, the revival of interest in psychedelics has sparked a growing body of scientific research into their potential therapeutic uses. The renewed scientific discourse surrounding psychoactive substances aims to break the stigma shaped by mid-20th-century drug policies and reframe these substances as tools for personal and spiritual growth rather than merely recreational intoxicants. Notably, during the 1960s and 1970s, a large number of clinical treatments with psychedelics were carried out worldwide, involving several thousand patients [1]. In recent years, studies from prestigious research institutions have begun exploring the efficacy of psychedelics in treating depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and addiction, echoing ancient indigenous practices that recognized the profound impact of altered states of consciousness on healing and self-transcendence [2,3].

Entheogens, a term coined to replace the socio-culturally laden term “psychedelics”, refers to psychoactive substances traditionally used to foster spiritual experiences, religious ecstasy, and visions of the divine in indigenous practices [4,5]. In this paper, we use the term entheogen to refer to psychoactive substances traditionally used in spiritual, ritualistic, or healing contexts, emphasizing cultural and historical significance. The term psychedelic is reserved for classic serotonergic compounds such as psilocybin, as in Psylocibe serbica. Hallucinogen, although historically used, is applied cautiously and only when referencing the pharmacological capacity of certain plants (e.g., Datura, Henbane) to induce vivid sensory hallucinations, often deliriant in nature. These distinctions are made to ensure conceptual clarity and respect for both cultural contexts and the pharmacological accuracy of psychoactive flora presented in the paper.

This review highlights the rich ethnobotanical heritage of native Balkan entheogens, detailing their use in traditional healing practices and their potential therapeutic applications. In the Balkans and among Slavic peoples, the use of psychoactive plants and fungi was an integral part of life, embedded in ritualistic and healing practices. The volhv’, a revered shamanic figure, utilized music, incantations, symbolic markings (charanje), and the administration of hallucinogenic herbs to enter trance states and communicate with the spiritual realm. Psychoactive plants were known to induce hallucinations and were employed in rites for divination, healing, and protection against perceived demonic forces [6]. The Balkan region, with its diverse flora of entheogenic plants, remains fertile ground for rediscovering this hidden knowledge, particularly given the lack of formal research and evidence-based understanding of the benefits of many psychoactive species known in indigenous practice and cultural traditions. This review highlights the rich ethnobotanical and cultural heritage of native Balkan entheogenic plants and fungi, detailing their traditional roles in indigenous practices, their pharmacological profiles, and their potential therapeutic and wider applications. By synthesizing historical knowledge with cutting-edge research, we aim to uncover novel insights relevant to mental health treatments and beyond medical usage in integrative practices for holistic well-being.

The aim of this paper is twofold. First, we seek to bridge the historical knowledge gap by fostering an understanding of the benefits and cultural significance of native entheogen flora in the Balkan region, where oral traditions hold clues to their deep historical roots. This includes contributing to an understanding of the cultural authenticity of psychoactive use in Slavic nations. Second, we reinterpret native plants and their uses within the region in light of contemporary integrative, multidisciplinary psychedelic studies, synthesizing the intersection of indigenous entheogenic practices with modern research and clinical practice.

1.1. The Psychedelic Renaissance and Current Research Efforts

The so-called psychedelic renaissance refers to a global resurgence of research into the therapeutic potential of psychedelic and entheogenic substances. After decades of legal restrictions and social stigma, a growing body of clinical evidence has demonstrated the safety and efficacy of certain psychoactive compounds in treating conditions such as treatment-resistant depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), substance use disorders, and end-of-life anxiety [7]. Psilocybin, in particular, has gained prominence due to its low toxicity, short duration, and positive outcomes in controlled clinical settings.

In Europe, this momentum is evident through major research initiatives such as the PsyPal project (Psilocybin for Palliative Care), funded under the EU’s Horizon 2020 framework, and groundbreaking work at institutions like Imperial College London’s Centre for Psychedelic Research and the UCL Psychedelic Trials Group [8,9,10]. These projects explore not only the pharmacological efficacy of psychedelics, but also the ethical, psychological, and social implications of integrating these substances into contemporary mental health care [11]. Alongside clinical research, professional organizations such as MAPS (Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies) and PsychedelicsEUROPE have advocated for regulated, evidence-based access to psychedelic therapies. These efforts are contributing to policy reforms and regulatory shifts across the EU and North America [12,13,14].

Importantly, this renaissance has also sparked critical discussions about the role of mental health professionals, particularly helping professionals, psychologists, therapists, and integration coaches, in supporting individuals before, during, and after psychedelic experiences. As psychedelic-assisted therapy becomes more mainstream, ethical frameworks for culturally informed and trauma-sensitive care are gaining prominence [15,16]. The historical trajectory of psychedelic research has been cyclical, moving from early enthusiasm to prohibition and now back to scientific inquiry into therapeutic potential [1,17]. However, most of this research remains situated in Western biomedical paradigms. Less attention has been paid to indigenous and culturally specific entheogenic traditions, many of which offer rich knowledge systems that could inform ethical and context-sensitive therapeutic models. Consequently, the ethnobotanical and cultural dimensions of entheogen use, particularly those rooted in local traditions such as the Slavic and Balkan regions, are often overlooked. This paper seeks to bridge that gap by revisiting the indigenous knowledge systems surrounding native psychoactive plants and proposing a culturally sensitive framework for their reinterpretation within contemporary mental health and wellness contexts.

1.2. Psychoactive Plant Use Beyond Therapy: Exploring Happiness and Well-Being in Healthy Individuals

The current focus of psychedelic science raises an important question: Can psychedelics be used by healthy individuals to enhance their lives in supervised, ethical, and guided contexts, and if so, how might this contribute to overall life satisfaction and well-being? This question invites deeper inquiry into the extent to which psychoactive plants could be destigmatized for intentional use in personal development, beyond traditional medical or religious settings. The exploratory, non-clinical use of psychoactive substances (particularly when practiced with structured guidance, in controlled settings, and with careful attention to proper dosage) calls for renewed examination of their potential to support personal growth and contribute to a more fulfilling life. Happiness, quality of life, and well-being are interconnected concepts central to individual and societal health. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as not just the absence of illness, but a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being [18]. For instance, Diener and Seligman [19] found that very happy people tend to have strong social relationships and certain personality traits. Broader metrics like the OECD Better Life Index highlight factors such as income, education, work–life balance, and health care access as contributors to perceived quality of life [20]. Positive psychology research has shown that happiness is influenced by both intrinsic factors (e.g., emotional regulation, sense of purpose) and extrinsic factors (e.g., social connections, financial stability). Research by Lyubomirsky [21] suggests that roughly 40% of a person’s happiness may be determined by intentional activities and choices (with genetics and life circumstances accounting for the rest), underscoring the impact of mindset and behavior. Engaging in a variety of positive activities has also been shown to boost happiness and reduce hedonic adaptation [21,22].

In this context, some researchers have begun to explore psychedelics as potential catalysts for positive psychological change in healthy individuals, but insights from therapeutic studies have also provided evidence in this field. Sonja Lyubomirsky, a leading expert in happiness science, has expanded her work to investigate how psychedelics might influence long-term happiness and quality of life. Recent studies co-authored by Lyubomirsky examine how substances like psilocybin and 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) can elicit lasting positive emotional changes and facilitate states of awe, gratitude, and self-compassion. Her work emphasizes the importance of set and setting (the mental state and environment) in shaping psychedelic experiences, highlighting that therapeutic context and mindset are crucial for positive outcomes. Psychedelic-assisted experiences, when properly guided, can foster feelings of connectedness, clarity, and self-transcendence, helping individuals process trauma, break maladaptive thought patterns, and rekindle a sense of purpose [23]. Such experiences have been reported to mitigate symptoms of depression and anxiety, enhance emotional resilience, and promote post-traumatic growth [24]. Additionally, research into microdosing (regular ingestion of very small, sub-perceptual doses) of substances such as psilocybin and Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) reports improvements in focus, creativity, and problem-solving in healthy volunteers [25]. Some full-dose psychedelic studies with screened healthy participants show increased emotional insight, resilience, and reduced stress [11]. Psychedelics have also been noted to enhance meaning-making and existential satisfaction, supporting spiritual well-being and a sense of interconnectedness. These outcomes, especially when combined with integrative practices (e.g., mindfulness or therapy), indicate that psychedelic experiences can reinforce intentional behavioral changes that contribute to sustained well-being. Still, these areas remain under-researched and somewhat stigmatized, as the dominant narrative frames psychedelics mainly as medicines for illness or as dangerous recreational drugs. Expanding the focus of research to include positive or non-clinical outcomes could challenge these biases. Developing evidence-based frameworks aligned with modern values, such as productivity, creativity, and sustainable human flourishing, may support the integration of life-enhancing psychedelic use models for healthy individuals alongside existing therapeutic models.

2. Methodology

This paper adopts a narrative literature review methodology to explore the cultural, therapeutic, and pharmacological significance of selected psychoactive plants and fungi used in Slavic and Balkan traditions. A narrative review was chosen intentionally over a systematic review due to the exploratory nature of the topic, the diversity of source types consulted, and the aim of capturing underrepresented perspectives, particularly those embedded in archival materials, ethnographic narratives, and South Slavic historical sources that are not typically indexed in major scientific databases.

Thematic synthesis was used to integrate multiple strands of scholarship, including pharmacological studies, anthropological literature, clinical research, and oral and archival histories. While we consulted databases such as PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, HRČAK, and Google Scholar, our intention was not to provide an exhaustive or protocol-driven synthesis typical of systematic reviews. Rather, we aimed to include sources that are linguistically, regionally, and culturally relevant to the South Slavic context, many of which exist outside standard English-language academic indexing systems. Sample search terms used across platforms and sources included “psychedelics”, “entheogens”, “Balkans”, “Slavic ethnobotany”, “Amanita muscaria”, “Psilocybe serbica”, “Datura stramonium”, “psychedelic therapy”, and “psychoactive pharmacological mechanisms”. These were supplemented with targeted searches in ethnobotanical collections, gray literature, and regional archives, particularly in South Slavic languages. This manuscript provides a qualitative, interpretative overview of existing knowledge, identifies gaps in the literature, and contributes new perspectives by integrating cultural, historical, and scientific discourses based on the available literature as well as historical and ethnographic sources, and is informed by the authors’ expertise and critical engagement with the subject.

Ultimately, this methodology aligns with our goal of bridging traditional entheogenic knowledge with contemporary therapeutic discourse, while contributing to open science and inclusive scholarship in a field that remains unevenly explored. Selected methodological approach allows for integration of scientific and cultural insights to bridge historical entheogenic practices with contemporary discussions on mental health and well-being.

3. Slavic Entheogenic Heritage

The indigenous practices of the Slavic people highlight the universality of humanity’s attempt to bridge the gap between the mundane and the divine. This is illustrated by parallels with other ancient civilizations, such as the use of ayahuasca by South American cultures or the Eleusinian Mysteries of ancient Greece [26]. Slavic entheogenic traditions reveal a recurring motif: using natural psychoactive substances to attain mystical states, transcend suffering, and gain insight into the mysteries of existence as part of seeking well-being and meaning beyond exclusively healing practice in their rituals. In addition to their spiritual role, entheogens in ancient Slavic medicine often had practical therapeutic functions. Herbal remedies were combined with other medicine techniques such as hydrotherapy, and even rudimentary surgical techniques, to treat physical ailments together with practices like dancing “kolo”, a traditional sacred dance to reach and maintain health in a holistic manner. In his Chronica Slavorum, the medieval chronicler Helmold noted that Slavs took special care of the sick and elderly, who enjoyed good treatment in their communities [27]. The Southern Slavs believed every ailment had a specific medicinal plant, and conversely, that every plant had curative properties for at least one disease. They even imagined a universal healing herb known as “trava od razgona”, reflecting a belief in a master cure-all. Their extensive knowledge of medicinal plants has led some scholars to hypothesize that many Dacian plant names in Dioscorides’ ancient texts may actually be of Slavic origin [6].

In many Slavic and Balkan cultures, women historically played a central role as custodians of herbal, magical, and entheogenic knowledge. They frequently served as village healers, ritual specialists, and intermediaries between the spiritual and physical realms. Their practices, deeply embedded in animistic worldviews and folk traditions, integrated the use of psychoactive plants with oral storytelling, protective charms, and seasonal ceremonial rites. The healer’s role was essential not only to maintaining the health of the community but also to sustaining its spiritual and cultural continuity. In particular, women were instrumental in preserving and transmitting medicinal and entheogenic knowledge across generations. Legendary figures such as Princess Kazi of Bohemia and Eupraxia Mstislavova of Kievan Rus, who authored a herbal remedy manual in the 12th century, illustrate the historically respected position of women as guardians of psychoactive plant wisdom [6].

The Slavic term “vrač” (healer), derived from verbs meaning “to speak” or “to tell fortunes”, reflects the dual role of these practitioners as both medical caregivers and spiritual guides. Many relied on altered states of consciousness for diagnosis, divination, and healing rituals [6]. However, with the spread of Christianity across Slavic territories between the 9th and 12th centuries, this tradition of female-led healing and spirituality was gradually marginalized and repressed. Religious and political authorities increasingly condemned psychoactive plant use as pagan or heretical, systematically suppressing hallucinogenic brews and rituals once central to local spiritual life [28].

Ethnographic and historical research confirms that this repression coincided with the rise of patriarchal religious and medical institutions seeking to replace local cosmologies with institutional authority and theological orthodoxy. Petreska [29] highlights the ritual expertise of female folk healers in the Balkans, emphasizing their cultural and spiritual significance. Kerewsky-Halpern [30] explores the centrality of embodied trust, relational care, and social legitimacy in these healing traditions. Conrad [31] and Davidson [28] further document how such knowledge was delegitimized and pushed underground as part of broader gendered transformations within early European medical and religious systems

Despite this persecution, many suppressed practices survived in folk medicine and rural customs, passed down orally across generations. Linguistic evidence also preserved pharmacological insight: “bien” (literally “mad”) was a folk name for Henbane, indicating its hallucinogenic effects, while “kihavac” (from “kihanje”, meaning “sneezing”) referred to Veratrum album (white hellebore), known to induce sneezing fits [6]. These terms suggest a nuanced and retained understanding of plant-based psychoactive properties, even after formalized use had been forbidden [32]. Altogether, these traditions underscore the depth of women’s entheogenic knowledge and the sociopolitical forces that marginalized their roles, highlighting the need for renewed scholarly attention to their historical contributions in medicine, spirituality, and cultural resilience.

Medieval medicine enabled valuable written records of indigenous knowledge to be documented in manuscripts known as “ljekaruše”, folk medicine handbooks compiled by healers (often anonymous, over generations), containing recipes and instructions for treating various illnesses with herbs, animal products, and rituals. Croatian “ljekaruše” from the 17th to 19th centuries lists numerous plants with mentions of psychoactive flora among the regional heritage [33,34]. The Balkan Slavs revered several “magical plants” for healing and protection [6]. Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium, known locally as gorki pelin) was one such plant with a dual medicinal and psychoactive legacy. “Ljekaruše” describes it as a bitter tonic and vermifuge, initially available in pharmacies as a cough medicine and immunity booster. This tonic was so highly praised that it was regularly used by the Austro-Hungarian royal family. Wormwood was used to create bitter herbal wines such as pelinkovac (a traditional Balkan bitter liqueur still produced today - Pelinkovac, an alcoholic drink with small, symbolic dosage of the wormwood is Croatian national drink with marked quality [35]) and, more infamously, absinthe. Absinthe, a green spirit (~70% alcohol) traditionally containing wormwood, gained notoriety in 19th-century France for its purported mild hallucinatory effects and its association with bohemian artists. Its active component, thujone (in wormwood oil), was blamed for addictive and psychoactive properties. Although wormwood-infused beverages were part of folk remedies, due to toxicity and neurological effects at high doses, production of absinthe and similar concoctions declined. Many countries banned absinthe by the early 20th century (it was banned in France in 1915) as it became a scapegoat for social ills of alcoholism, despite wine and other spirits being far more commonly consumed. The absinthe story is a case study in how a psychoactive folk medicine can become a cultural phenomenon and then be suppressed due to public health concerns and moral panic [36]. Interestingly, absinthe’s history continues to be reexamined in public health discussions, illustrating how perceptions of a “psychedelic” or mind-altering substance can dramatically shift over time.

The Balkan region also has a notable history in the cultivation of psychoactive substances, bridging indigenous knowledge and modern industry. An often-overlooked chapter is the opium production in the former Yugoslavia during the mid-20th century, providing Balkan people with expertise in the cultivation of entheogenic and other pharmacologically active plants. Back in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the region of Macedonia (then under Ottoman, later Yugoslav rule) was renowned for high-quality opium poppies. Ottoman authorities and later Yugoslav governments capitalized on local expertise in poppy cultivation. By the late 1800s, Macedonian opium, with morphine content of 14–16% (significantly higher than the 3–5% typical of Asian opium), had become a major export, comprising up to 28% of the Ottoman Empire’s opium supply [37,38]. At its peak around 1880, the Vardar River valley yielded ~70 tons of opium annually, reaching 79 tons by 1894. This industry thrived on both legal pharmaceutical demand and Black-market trade. The Macedonian subspecies of poppy was carefully bred (crossing varieties) and cultivated to allow double harvests per year, reflecting sophisticated agricultural knowledge. Even though this opium boom eventually waned due to climate challenges, pests, and international regulation, it underscores that the Balkans not only used psychoactive plants in folk rituals but also mastered their large-scale cultivation and processing. The legacy of Balkan opium, including practices like extracting poppy oil as a valuable byproduct, highlights a regional expertise in psychoactive botanicals and a willingness to engage with global markets for these substances [37]. This historical episode, while not about entheogenic use per se, demonstrates the deep regional familiarity with potent plant-derived drugs and the interplay of cultural knowledge and commerce.

Through centuries of change, from ancient rituals to folk medicine practices and recipes and industrial production, the Balkan peoples have maintained a relationship with psychoactive plants that is complex and evolving. This cultural–historical context sets the stage for re-examining the region’s native entheogens today. In the Sections that follow, we delve into specific fungi and plants native to the Balkans that have psychoactive properties, exploring their ethnobotanical uses, pharmacology, and potential applications in modern contexts.

4. Native Balkan Entheogenic Flora: Ethnobotany and Pharmacology

This Section reviews several native Balkan fungal and plant species with known psychoactive properties. We focus on two fungi and two chosen plants historically used or noted in South Slavic indigenous practice: Amanita muscaria (fly agaric mushroom), Psilocybe serbica (a local psilocybin mushroom species), Datura stramonium (jimsonweed), and Hyoscyamus niger (black henbane). While all the entheogens discussed in this paper contain psychoactive compounds, most should not be classified as classic psychedelics. Amanita muscaria, Datura stramonium, and Hyoscyamus niger are best described as deliriant entheogens with hallucinogenic properties, primarily due to their distinct anticholinergic or non-serotonergic pharmacological profiles. These substances have traditionally been used in spiritual or divinatory contexts rather than for their psychedelic effects. In contrast, Psilocybe serbica is classified as a classic psychedelic, as it contains serotonergic compounds that produce effects commonly associated with the psychedelic experience.

Figure 1 illustrates how culturally significant psychoactive plants and fungi have been visually represented on postage stamps across the former Yugoslav region, reflecting both their botanical importance and embeddedness in local heritage and public symbolism.

The depiction of Amanita muscaria, Psilocybe serbica, Datura stramonium, and Hyoscyamus niger on postage stamps issued between 1959 and 2019 across Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, and the former Yugoslavia indicates a longstanding recognition of these species beyond their pharmacological roles. Their inclusion in official national iconography suggests a deep-rooted cultural familiarity with psychoactive flora, hinting at their symbolic, medicinal, and folkloric relevance within Balkan societies. This reinforces the need to integrate ethnobotanical heritage into contemporary discussions on entheogens and public engagement with psychedelic science.

4.1. Amanita muscaria (Fly Agaric Mushroom)

Amanita muscaria (Croatian: Crvena muhara, “red fly agaric”) is one of the most iconic wild mushrooms worldwide, easily recognized by its bright red cap with white spots. In pre-Slavic and early Slavic traditions, this mushroom was believed to grant access to the spirit realm. It was reportedly used in solstice ceremonies to induce spiritual transcendence [41,42]. Some sources suggest connections between A. muscaria use in Indo-European rituals and the mythical “soma” of the Vedic tradition, though this remains speculative [43]. Ethnographic reports from Siberian and Nordic peoples describe shamans consuming fly agaric to enter trance states and communicate with spirits, a practice possibly paralleled among ancient Eurasian steppe cultures [44]. The symbolic legacy of A. muscaria persists in Slavic and European folklore, and its image commonly appears in fairy tales, holiday decorations, and folk art, reflecting its longstanding cultural imprint [45]. Despite its fame, modern attitudes toward fly agaric are ambivalent. On one hand, its botany and chemistry are well documented, yet on the other, it remains stigmatized as a dangerous or “poisonous” mushroom, leading to an under-appreciation of its potential uses. A. muscaria grows symbiotically with birch, spruce, and pine trees, thriving in temperate forests in the autumn. The cap is initially dome-shaped and flattens with age, reaching 8–20 cm in diameter, and its vivid red color with white warts makes it unmistakable [46]. Its primary psychoactive compounds are ibotenic acid and muscimol. Ibotenic acid is an excitatory neurotoxin (an NMDA receptor agonist), whereas muscimol (formed by decarboxylation of ibotenic acid, for instance by drying) is a potent GABA A receptor agonist, producing sedative, dissociative, and hallucinogenic effects [47]. Muscarine, another compound present in smaller quantities, acts on acetylcholine receptors and is responsible for some of the peripheral nervous system effects (e.g., sweating, salivation) but is not the main hallucinogen [48]. Pharmacologically, muscimol has shown interesting properties: studies in rodents indicate it can modulate fear memory and anxiety-related behaviors, hinting at neuroprotective or anxiolytic potential [49,50].

Importantly, the A. muscaria psychoactive experience is qualitatively different from that of psilocybin mushrooms or other “classic” psychedelics; when properly prepared and dosed, fly agaric tends to induce a sedative, dream-like state with mild euphoria and visuals (rather than the intense perceptual shifts of psilocybin) [51]. Nonetheless, A. muscaria has unpredictable effects if used without caution. The line between a manageable psychoactive dose and a toxic dose can be narrow. Common adverse effects include nausea, vomiting, confusion, and at higher doses, delirium or coma. Poisonings typically occur from misidentification (confusing it with edible mushrooms) or improper preparation, such as insufficient drying or incomplete parboiling, may result in inadequate detoxification, particularly if the mushroom is not thoroughly dried or heated, thereby increasing the risk of adverse effects [52,53]. There have been efforts to refine preparation and dosing (such as techniques to convert more ibotenic acid to muscimol to reduce toxicity), but without standardized methods, it remains a folk art. Modern toxicology data suggest that most A. muscaria ingestions, while unpleasant, are not lethal, but standardized safe use protocols are lacking [51,54]. This lack of evidence-based guidance has so far limited therapeutic investigations. From a scientific perspective, A. muscaria has huge potential for research and multidisciplinary perspectives. A few recent studies highlight muscimol’s potential benefits, for example, in reducing anxiety or as an anti-inflammatory neuroprotective agent [55]. Researchers have called for more systematic studies of fly agaric within its ecological and cultural context, rather than viewing it only as a toxic hazard [56]. The authors of this review would note that A. muscaria is perhaps one of the most underestimated species in terms of ethnopharmacological significance in the Balkans. Historically revered and yet contemporarily tabooed, it exemplifies a native resource whose potential is largely ignored. We posit that with proper preparation and low-dose administration, the risks of fly agaric could be mitigated sufficiently to explore its mild psychoactive and medicinal properties. A. muscaria offers a unique chemical profile distinct from serotonergic psychoactives, which could open up new pathways for treating anxiety-related disorders or for gently facilitating altered states in non-clinical settings, as well as other medicinal needs. Further, given its relatively gentle psychoactive effects (when dosed carefully) and deep roots in folklore, it could find applications beyond the therapy room, in small doses. Furthermore, given its relatively gentle psychoactive effects at carefully calibrated doses and its deep roots in Slavic folklore, Amanita muscaria presents potential for applications beyond conventional clinical therapy. Historical records and a growing body of anecdotal accounts describe its use in alleviating anxiety, pain, and inflammation, as well as mitigating symptoms associated with chronic neurodegenerative conditions such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease. Some sources also suggest its value in supporting recovery from traumatic experiences. When properly prepared and administered in low doses, A. muscaria could serve as part of integrative wellness practices, including its use as a herbal supplement aimed at promoting emotional balance, mental resilience, and overall well-being. Its distinctive psychoactive profile, marked by muscimol and ibotenic acid, also makes it a candidate for enhancing practices like lucid dreaming and dream therapy, where it may facilitate introspective insight and symbolic processing in altered states of consciousness. While such non-clinical applications remain underexplored in formal research, they underscore the need for interdisciplinary studies that examine the ethnopharmacological, psychological, and therapeutic dimensions of A. Muscaria within both traditional knowledge systems and modern well-being frameworks.

In summary, Amanita muscaria has a dual legacy in the Balkans: culturally significant yet scientifically underexplored. It stands out as a candidate for sustainable research and possibly revival, bridging ethnomycology and therapy. However, unlocking its benefits will require overcoming stigma, developing standardized processing methods, and conducting controlled studies to ensure safety and efficacy. The renewed interest in psychedelics provides an opportunity to reevaluate A. muscaria not just as a poisonous toadstool of fairy tales, but as a subject of serious study and a potential contributor to modern well-being.

4.2. Psilocybe serbica (Balkan Psilocybin Mushroom)

Among the psychoactive substances discussed in this paper, psilocybin has received substantial scientific attention in recent decades. Clinical studies have demonstrated its efficacy in treating major depressive disorder, end-of-life anxiety, and addiction, often with long-lasting effects after one or two guided sessions [11,57]. Neuroimaging research has linked psilocybin’s effects to the downregulation of the brain’s default mode network and increased neural plasticity [58].

Psilocybe serbica is a psilocybin-containing mushroom native to parts of the Balkan Peninsula. The active serotonergic compound in Psilocybe serbica classifies it as a classic psychedelic, making it the only entheogen presented in this paper that falls within this category. It belongs to the same genus as the well-known Psilocybe cubensis and Psilocybe semilanceata, but is a distinct species adapted to the region’s climate. This mushroom has recently gained scholarly attention for both its biodiversity and its ethnobotanical context in the Balkans. The historical use of Psilocybe serbica is not as well documented as the ritual use of psilocybin mushrooms in, for example, Mesoamerican cultures. However, emerging ethnomycological research suggests Psilocybe species may have played roles in some local spiritual or shamanic rituals in Eastern Europe. Borovočka [59] notes that wood-rotting Psilocybe mushrooms are present in Central Europe and could plausibly have been encountered by local populations. Some ethnographers have hypothesized that in regions rich in indigenous biodiversity, including parts of the former Yugoslavia, there were likely historical uses of psychoactive fungi analogous to other indigenous practices around the world [56]. That said, any traditional knowledge of P. serbica’s use remains largely speculative or very localized, and overall, this aspect is under-researched. It is possible that such practices, if they existed, were lost due to cultural suppression or simply remain unreported.

In terms of ecology, Psilocybe serbica typically grows on decomposing deciduous and coniferous wood in moist, shaded forest environments (often on fallen logs or stumps). The mushroom’s cap is relatively small (20–50 mm across) and brownish, bruising blue-green when damaged—a classic indicator of psilocybin presence [60]. The gills start pale brown and turn dark purple as spores mature. P. sserbica, like many saprophytic fungi, contributes to nutrient cycling by breaking down wood, which underscores an ecological dimension: these mushrooms thrive in old-growth forests and thus highlight the link between biodiversity conservation and preservation of entheogenic species. Chemically, Psilocybe serbica produces the psychoactive tryptamines psilocybin and psilocin (as well as related analogs like baeocystin and norbaeocystin). Psilocybin itself is a prodrug; after ingestion, it is metabolized (dephosphorylated) to psilocin, which binds to 5-HT₂A serotonin receptors in the brain. This agonism leads to the well-known effects: altered sensory perception (e.g., visual distortions), profound introspection, feelings of unity or ego dissolution, and in some cases spiritual or mystical-type experiences [61]. These effects generally last 4–6 h. The potency of P. serbica in terms of psilocybin content is reported to be comparable to other potent Psilocybe species, though concentrations can vary with strain and environment [59]. Interestingly, local enthusiasts have started the Psilosoma Project to catalog genetic diversity among Balkan Psilocybe mushrooms; findings suggest there may be significant variability in tryptamine levels between different wild populations, which could inform appropriate dosing and safety if used therapeutically [62].

Modern clinical research on psilocybin—mostly conducted with P. cubensis or synthetic psilocybin—has reinforced the therapeutic potential of this compound for various mental health conditions. Recent trials and reviews have shown psilocybin-assisted therapy can produce rapid and sustained reductions in depression (including treatment-resistant depression), help relieve anxiety in cancer patients, and assist in treating certain addictions [63,64]. While these studies are not specific to P. serbica, they validate the general medical value of the Psilocybe genus. A 2024 report in a pharmacy journal [65] traces the journey of psilocybin mushrooms from ancient traditions to modern clinical use, underscoring a renaissance in understanding these substances. For the Balkans, P. serbica could be a locally available resource for such psilocybin-based therapies, given proper identification and standardization. Indeed, researchers stress the importance of studying local species because genetic and chemical nuances might affect their ideal therapeutic use [61].

One consideration is that, unlike cultivated P. cubensis, wild P. serbica may have varying potency and presence of other compounds (like higher baeocystin or phenylethylamines) that are less understood. This means any medical or wellness use needs controlled cultivation or extraction for consistency. Moreover, any move to utilize P. serbica must consider conservation: over-harvesting or habitat loss could threaten wild populations, so cultivation might be preferable for supply. In conclusion, Psilocybe serbica is an indigenous psychoactive mushroom with significant biochemical and potential therapeutic value. While historical use in the Balkans remains to be elucidated, its presence adds a local dimension to the psychedelic renaissance. Further ethnomycological study could uncover cultural knowledge that has so far been overlooked, and scientific research on P. serbica could contribute valuable data to the broader discourse on psychedelic-assisted therapy. Emphasizing local biodiversity—such as unique mushroom species—also highlights the importance of preserving nature as we explore these options for mental health and well-being.

4.3. Datura Stramonium (Jimsonweed, Thorn Apple)

Datura stramonium (locally known as datura, kužnjak, or tatula) is a flowering plant in the nightshade family (Solanaceae) that is both feared and revered in Balkan folklore for its powerful hallucinogenic and toxic properties [63]. All parts of the plant contain potent tropane alkaloids that can induce delirium and visions, making it a traditional tool in both shamanic rituals and witchcraft, as well as a dangerous poison. In ethnobotanical records, D. stramonium has been associated with divination rites and shamanic ceremonies in the region [64]. Historical accounts link Datura to European witchcraft practices: it was a key ingredient in certain “flying ointments” or potions purportedly used by witches to induce out-of-body experiences or communication with spirits [65,66]. Such ointments, often a mixture of nightshades (Datura, Belladonna, Henbane) in a fatty base, were applied to the skin or mucous membranes to absorb the actives, producing hallucinatory trance states that were interpreted as nocturnal flights or occult visions in the folklore of the Middle Ages.

Datura stramonium is an annual herb that can grow up to ~1.5 m tall. It has large green leaves with irregular toothed edges and distinctive trumpet-shaped flowers that are white or pale purple. After blooming, it forms a spiky seed pod (hence the nickname “thorn apple”) containing numerous seeds. This plant thrives in disturbed soils—one can find it along roadsides, in abandoned fields, and even in urban vacant lots throughout the Balkans. Its resilience and tendency to appear in human-altered landscapes perhaps contributed to its association with misfortune or plague (one Croatian name, kužnjak, is related to “plague” or “pestilent”). Pharmacologically, Datura stramonium’s effects come from tropane alkaloids, primarily atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine, concentrated in the leaves, seeds, and roots. These alkaloids are anticholinergics: they block acetylcholine receptors in the parasympathetic nervous system. In doing so, they can cause a range of effects from dilated pupils, dry mucous membranes, and elevated heart rate to profound central nervous system (CNS) effects like delirium, hallucinations, amnesia, and, in overdose, respiratory failure or death [67,68]. Unlike classical psychedelics, which often produce lucid (though altered) consciousness, Datura-induced hallucinations are typically accompanied by confusion, inability to distinguish fantasy from reality, and often an absence of insight that one is under the influence of a drug. This makes recreational use of Datura particularly dangerous; indeed, Datura intoxication is often described as an “invisible trip” because people may interact with imaginary beings or circumstances as if they were real, sometimes leading to accidents or injuries. Despite these dangers, D. stramonium has a notable history in medicine and folk healing. In controlled small doses, it was used as an analgesic and antispasmodic. For example, tinctures or smoke from burning Datura leaves were traditional remedies for asthma and respiratory ailments (atropine and scopolamine relax bronchial smooth muscle). In the 19th century, “asthma cigarettes” containing Datura (marketed as Datura tatula cigarettes) were sold in Europe and America as a treatment for asthma and bronchitis [67]. A Manchester Evening Herald article from 1964 recounts how even in the 1960s, Bulgarian scientists experimented with grafting techniques to create a hybrid “Atro-tobacco” by grafting tobacco plants onto Datura stramonium rootstock, yielding a nicotine-free smoking product containing atropine, hyoscyamine, and scopolamine. This product was claimed to have health benefits for respiratory conditions, though it was never thoroughly researched [69]. The existence of these practices underlines that Datura was not only a subject of superstition but also part of legitimate medical inquiry in past times.

In Slavic folk medicine, Datura stramonium, commonly known by folk names such as tatula or “Devil’s apple”, was traditionally used both externally and internally. Externally, its leaves were applied as poultices to alleviate pain from conditions like neuralgia, burns, and rheumatism. Internally, in carefully measured minute doses, it was employed to treat asthma and as a sedative, owing to its anticholinergic properties derived from compounds like atropine and scopolamine [70]. The plant holds a significant place in South Slavic folklore, where it was often planted around homes to ward off evil spirits. Conversely, cautionary tales warned that inhaling its fragrance at night could lead to visions of ghosts or induce madness [66]. These narratives reflect broader Indo-European and Balkan traditions in which psychotropic plants are situated on a delicate boundary between healing and harm [71,72].

However, due to its high toxicity and the unpredictable concentrations of its active compounds, primarily atropine, hyoscyamine, and scopolamine, Datura stramonium has largely been abandoned in modern herbal practice. The variability of alkaloid content not only between individual plants but even within different parts of the same plant makes precise dosing extremely difficult and increases the risk of accidental poisoning [73]. Seasonal variation also plays a role; for instance, comparative analysis of summer and autumn samples of D. stramonium revealed a marked decline in alkaloid concentration in vegetative organs over time [74].

Despite its toxicity, Datura stramonium exhibits a broad pharmacological profile, with documented analgesic, antiviral, anti-diarrheal, and anti-inflammatory properties. Medial potential indicates a variety of ailments, including ulcers, wounds, bruises, gout, toothache, sciatica, asthma, bronchitis, and fever [75].

In contemporary medicine, the therapeutic potential of Datura stramonium is realized through the use of purified and standardized pharmaceutical derivatives of its active alkaloids. Scopolamine is widely employed for the prevention of motion sickness and postoperative nausea, typically administered via transdermal patches to ensure controlled delivery. Atropine is listed on the World Health Organization’s List of Essential Medicines and actively used in several clinical settings, including ophthalmology for pupil dilation, cardiology for bradycardia, and as an antidote for organophosphate poisoning and occasionally used in the treatment of refractive and accommodative amblyopia when occlusion therapy is not viable [76,77,78].

Today, Datura stramonium remains largely overlooked in scientific and public health discussions in the Balkan region. However, there is an urgent need for broader public education on its toxicological risks. Recent surveys indicate that Datura accounts for a significant proportion of plant-related poisoning cases, particularly among adolescents experimenting with psychoactive substances [79,80]. A large-scale U.S. survey conducted between 1983 and 2009 found that Datura related intoxications were among the most frequent plant exposures with fatal outcomes, responsible for approximately 20% of all deaths in such cases [74]. These outcomes could be significantly reduced through culturally informed prevention efforts and targeted health education [80].

In this context, it is especially important to educate adolescents about the severe toxicities and unpredictable effects of the recreational use of Datura stramonium. Many cases of poisoning result from a lack of knowledge about dosage, preparation, and the narrow threshold between a psychoactive and a lethal dose. In cases of Datura intoxication, physostigmine has been used effectively in both diagnosis and management, offering a pharmacological intervention that can reverse central and peripheral anticholinergic symptoms [80].

Datura stramonium is a native Balkan entheogen with a storied history in ritual and medicine. Its hallucinogenic properties are intense and risky, yet its traditional uses show it was once an important part of the herbal pharmacopoeia. Any revival of interest must balance its potential benefits with respect for its dangers and the cultural wisdom that surrounded its use.

4.4. Hyoscyamus Niger (Black Henbane)

Black henbane (Hyoscyamus niger, locally Bunika) is another Solanaceous plant that figures prominently in Slavic and broader European history as both a potent hallucinogen poison and a medicinal herb. It shares the tropane alkaloid profile of its relatives Datura and Belladonna, containing hyoscyamine and scopolamine primarily, which makes its effects similarly deliriant and narcotic. In Slavic and Balkan traditions, Henbane was enveloped in an aura of magic and mysticism. It was sometimes referred to as a “plant of forgetfulness”, and some scholars even speculate it could be the Homeric “nepenthes”, the legendary grief-erasing potion, due to its amnestic effects [6].

Black henbane is a biennial plant with a fetid smell. In its second year, it can reach up to 80–90 cm tall. Its leaves are gray-green, sticky, and hairy, with a somewhat feathery lobed appearance. The flowers are distinctive: funnel-shaped with five lobes, yellowish with purple veins and a dark throat, giving an eerie beauty. It produces bladder-like seed capsules filled with numerous tiny black seeds. Henbane is often found in dry, nutrient-rich soils, and like Datura, around human settlements (it was historically a common weed near manure piles or middens, which might have contributed to knowledge of its effects via livestock poisonings, etc.) [64,81,82]. Pharmacologically, hyoscyamine (which racemizes to atropine) and scopolamine in henbane are strong anticholinergics. In moderate doses, henbane causes sedation, pain relief, and hallucinations; higher doses lead to severe agitation, delirium, and potentially lethal effects like respiratory failure. Hyoscyamus species differ a bit from Datura in relative proportions of alkaloids, but functionally they overlap [83,84]. Historically, henbane was used in numerous ways: as a sleep aid and analgesic (e.g., henbane-infused beers or wines were used to sedate patients or relieve toothache and rheumatism pain), as an aphrodisiac or love potion (likely due to disinhibition effects in low dose), and in divination rituals [84,85]. There are accounts of Germanic and Slavic oracles inhaling henbane smoke to induce prophetic trances [86]. The name Bunika still carries these connotations in folk stories where witches or sorcerers brew it to make someone delirious or to commune with spirits.

One notable use of henbane was in brewing: before hops became widespread in the flavoring of beer (~1500s in Europe), henbane (along with other herbs like wormwood and wild rosemary) was used in gruit, a herb mixture for beer. Henbane-flavored beer was known to be intoxicating beyond alcohol’s effects, sometimes causing hallucinatory experiences or belligerent behavior, which might have accelerated the adoption of hops (a sedative) to replace these more unpredictable psychotropics [6,85]. In the Balkans, henbane was part of both healing and harming practices. Wise women might mix small amounts into remedies for severe pain or insomnia. Conversely, during times of witch trials or social paranoia, finding henbane in someone’s garden could be cited as evidence of maleficium (witchcraft), since it was assumed to be used for spells. This duality is encapsulated by the words of the 16th-century botanist Matthiolus: “Henbane… taken inwardly causes madness, but applied outwardly assuages it”, referring to how internal use leads to delirium, whereas external use (in plasters/oils) can calm pain and spasms [83]

Modern medical research on henbane’s compounds continued in a limited way. Scopolamine, extracted historically from henbane among other plants, is used in controlled settings (e.g., as transdermal patches for motion sickness, or investigational for depression). Studies like Banani et al. [84] examine how to optimize alkaloid content in henbane for pharmaceutical uses, reflecting that interest still exists in henbane as a crop for drug production. There has also been interest in controlled anesthesia: prior to the development of modern anesthetics, henbane was sometimes used to induce twilight sleep (scopolamine–morphine combinations were early anesthetics). From a cultural heritage perspective, black henbane, like Datura, remains controversial and largely under the radar in contemporary Balkan herbal practice due to safety issues. It survives mainly in folklore and historical texts. Yet, exploring henbane in an ethnographic sense, documenting any surviving knowledge on its preparation (e.g., which parts to use, how to dose, how to mitigate toxicity with other herbs) could be valuable. Such knowledge, if recorded, honors the sophisticated understanding our ancestors had of these plants, even if they feared them. It is telling that even the names of henbane in Slavic languages (e.g., Russian белена (belena) from bel for white or beljan for craziness) encode its identity as a drug of madness. In Croatian, bunika relates to bunilo (delirium). Language thus preserves a memory of henbane’s power. Given its toxicity, it is unlikely to be embraced for well-being enhancement like some gentler psychedelics might. However, understanding henbane’s role in indigenous practice contributes to a full picture of how psychoactive flora were part of a continuum of care and mysticism in the Balkans, from healing the body to exploring spiritual realms.

As public interest in psychedelic therapies grows, mental health professionals, including psychologists, therapists, social workers, and counselors, are increasingly fielding questions from clients about the therapeutic use of these substances. In response, a growing number of clinicians now support individuals by providing preparatory guidance before psychedelic experiences and facilitating integration afterward. Integration refers to the process of making sense of and applying insights gained during psychedelic sessions into everyday life. Research highlights that such integration is essential for maximizing therapeutic outcomes and minimizing psychological risk, emphasizing the pivotal role that mental health practitioners can play in ensuring these experiences are psychologically constructive and sustainable [87,88,89].

As the field of psychedelic research and therapy continues to evolve, mental health professionals remain central to efforts that bridge scientific innovation with ethical, client-centered care. Their involvement will be critical not only in clinical settings but also in developing training standards, safety protocols, and culturally sensitive integration models as psychedelic-assisted therapies become more accessible and socially accepted.

5. Future Directions for Research and Implementation in the Balkan Context

The native Balkan flora, rich in psychoactive species such as Amanita muscaria, Psilocybe serbica, Datura stramonium, Hyoscyamus niger, and Atropa belladonna and others holds significant potential for reinterpretation within contemporary psychedelic science.

These fungi and plants historically served important roles in cultural rituals, healing practices, and mythological narratives, and beyond that, in everyday life and the support of health. When considering future research and applications, it is useful to recognize that discourse on psychoactive substances has historically revolved around two primary frameworks: medicinal use (addressing clinical issues like depression, PTSD, or addiction) and ritualistic/recreational use (rooted in shamanic traditions, spiritual exploration, or casual enjoyment). The Balkans encapsulate both domains, from indigenous shamanic heritage to a history of large-scale production of psychoactive substances (as seen with opium and absinthe), making the region uniquely informative for a holistic understanding of psychoactives. A comparative overview of traditional use and cultural relevance, of selected entheogens in slavic and Balkan traditions, are provided in

Table 1. Summary of Selected Entheogens in Slavic and Balkan Traditions.

Plant/Fungus	Traditional Use	Active Compounds	Pharmacological Mechanism	Cultural Significance
Amanita muscaria	Visionary and Shamanic Rites	Muscimol, Ibotenic Acid	Gabaergic	Deep Folklore Symbolism, Linked to Spirit World
Datura stramonium	Protective and Divinatory Rituals	Scopolamine, Atropine	Anticholinergic	Used in Balkan and Slavic Protective Rituals
Psilocybe serbica	Spiritual Healing and Initiation	Psilocybin	Serotonergic (5-Ht2a)	Historically Significant in Slavic Mystical Traditions
Hyoscyamus niger	Trance States and Folk Healing	Hyoscyamine, Scopolamine	Anticholinergic	Associated with Madness and Sorcery in Folklore

. By examining their traditional uses, cultural significance, and pharmacological profiles (including active compounds, mechanisms, and risks/benefits), we bridge the gap between the Balkan cultural heritage of entheogen use and modern scientific understanding.

Despite their wide-ranging potential, the plants and fungi discussed require precise handling and further research due to several factors: their challenging pharmacology, the paucity of rigorous studies on them, the need for standardized dosing protocols, and the importance of positive integration models (especially if considering non-medical beneficial use). Future ethnobotanical studies should prioritize documenting the knowledge that still exists in rural or elder communities about these species. Interdisciplinary studies combining knowledge of ethnobotany, pharmacology, helping professions, and neuroscience together can explore innovative treatments that honor both cultural heritage and therapeutic potential.

Future psychoactive studies could focus not only on pathology but also on how these substances might enhance well-being in healthy individuals. Psychoactive life potential framework could investigate intentional, informed, and ethical use of psychedelics and other psychoactives to foster subjective well-being, emotional resilience, creativity, and overall life satisfaction in healthy populations. The Balkans, with their rich folklore of using herbs for vitality, love, courage, and other aspects of life (not just for treating illness), could inspire such models. For instance, can low, non-intoxicating doses of certain native plants be used in a manner akin to supplements for stress relief or enhanced focus? Development of models that will include an intentional, structured approach to using psychedelics for personal growth in healthy people different from both clinical treatment and casual recreational use. Core principles should include intentionality (goal-driven, purposeful use rather than escapism) and a well-being focus that prioritizes emotional and cognitive development over treating pathology [90,91]. Integration is key: individuals are encouraged to incorporate insights from psychedelic experiences into daily life, fostering stronger relationships, creativity, and mindful decision-making, often guided by professionals or community support, much like indigenous traditions of mentorship during integration (e.g., shamans or elders helping contextualize the experience). Empowerment is another principle, positioning individuals as active participants in their journey of self-actualization, rather than passive recipients of a drug effect. Finally, safety and responsibility are fundamental, emphasizing informed use, secure environments, and ethical guidelines to prevent misuse [92,93].

Of course, any such approach requires rigorous safety considerations and likely a change in regulatory mindset. Using psychoactives for “life potential seeking” challenges existing legal and ethical norms, even though such practices are deeply rooted in traditional customs and ancestral knowledge in many cultures, including Balkan and Slavic traditions. Changing this perspective would require robust evidence to ensure that non-medical use can be safe, beneficial, and free from abuse. It also calls for significant cultural and regulatory shifts, perhaps akin to how meditation or yoga moved from fringe spiritual practices to widely accepted wellness activities. Psychedelics might follow a similar path, but only if research demonstrates clear benefits for healthy users and if society can put safeguards in place to prevent misuse. In the Balkan context, bridging ancient entheogenic practices with modern science could pave the way for innovative mental health interventions that are also culturally resonant. For example, a controlled clinical trial in the region might incorporate elements of Slavic ritual (music, setting, symbols) when administering psilocybin therapy, to see if a culturally tailored set and setting improve outcomes. Additionally, any local research initiatives should prioritize sustainability: cultivation of these plants/fungi (instead of wild-harvesting endangered populations), respect for local ecosystems, and engagement with communities that have traditional knowledge to ensure ethical inclusion and acknowledgement.

Another future direction is education and de-stigmatization. A broader understanding that entheogens were historically part of Balkan cultures can help reduce stigma by framing psychedelics not as foreign “drugs of abuse” but as part of the region’s own heritage that, under certain conditions, provided value. This perspective might foster a more balanced public dialogue on psychedelics and even encourage regional policymakers to support research. Already, the formation of conferences like the “Science of Psychedelics in Practice” in Zagreb (as cited for several 2025 conference presentations in our references) indicates growing scholarly interest [94]. Continued dialogues at academic and community levels can ensure that future policies consider not just the risks but also the potential benefits and cultural significance of these substances.

In summary, the future of entheogen research and use in the Balkans (and beyond) could involve the following:

• Comprehensive research on ethnobotanical history and pharmacology of native species (to fill knowledge gaps and identify promising compounds or practices).
• Integrative therapeutic trials and other multidisciplinary research and trials that combine traditional insights with modern protocols (e.g., using Psilocybe serbica in clinical studies, or investigating micro-dosed muscimol for anxiety).
• Well-being-oriented studies that cautiously explore non-clinical benefits (creativity, cognitive enhancement, etc.) in healthy volunteers, under ethical oversight.
• Cultural preservation efforts, such as creating archives of folklore and practices related to entheogens, perhaps even living museums or gardens cultivating these plants with educational programs about their historical uses.
• Policy engagement, where scientists and historians together inform regulators about the context and low abuse potential (in supervised settings) of many psychedelics, to argue for more research permissions and possibly therapeutic use exemptions.

By examining entheogenic traditions within Slavic culture, researchers can contribute to a more expansive understanding of these substances, one that encompasses historical, cultural, and medicinal dimensions. Such an interdisciplinary exploration not only enriches our knowledge of Slavic and Balkan heritage but also feeds into the global movement advocating for responsible, research-backed use of psychedelics. Integrating cultural heritage with scientific exploration can inform how we design new mental health treatments and wellness practices. For instance, understanding that Slavic shamans combined music and entheogens could inspire researchers to study the synergistic effect of music therapy and psychedelics in modern clinical trials.

6. Limitations

As a narrative review, this study does not follow a rigid inclusion/exclusion protocol, nor does it aim to quantitatively synthesize evidence. While this approach allows for thematic depth and interdisciplinary integration, it also presents certain limitations [95]. The search strategy, although deliberately broad and inclusive of archival, ethnographic, and gray literature, may have omitted relevant studies outside the selected linguistic and cultural scope. Additionally, the absence of a formal systematic review process introduces a degree of subjectivity in the selection and interpretation of sources, despite the interdisciplinary nature of the research team. The inclusion of historical and folkloric narratives, though essential for capturing cultural context, also introduces variability in terms of academic rigor and documentation standards. Nevertheless, the narrative review format was intentionally selected to accommodate the exploratory and cross-disciplinary aims of the study and to contribute novel insights to an under-researched area of psychedelic scholarship.

7. Conclusions

The entheogenic heritage of the Balkans represents a vital reservoir of cultural, ecological, and therapeutic knowledge. As global interest in psychedelics grows, preserving these traditions becomes not only a scholarly responsibility but an ethical imperative. Future research should prioritize sustainable and respectful approaches, ensuring the protection of native species, engaging with local communities, and recognizing the cultural roots from which this knowledge emerges. This includes equitable benefit-sharing and the active involvement of local experts such as folklorists and traditional herbalists.

Current scientific and regulatory frameworks often favor clinical applications of psychedelics, reinforcing the idea that their use is acceptable only in the context of treating illness. While medicalization has helped destigmatize psychedelics, it has also limited public discourse and research into their broader potential for well-being, creativity, and personal growth. Emerging evidence suggests that non-clinical uses, such as microdosing or spiritual exploration, may offer meaningful benefits, yet these domains remain underexplored. This paper argues for a more inclusive paradigm: one that respects traditional uses and integrates them with modern ethical standards and scientific rigor. Concepts such as the psychoactive life potential model offer promising frameworks for examining psychedelics beyond pathology, emphasizing their capacity to enhance life as well as heal it.

Ultimately, entheogens in the Balkans have long served as “natural guardians”, aiding healing, insight, and social cohesion. Honoring this legacy means embracing a balanced approach to psychedelic use, one that promotes individual and collective well-being, protects biodiversity, and upholds cultural integrity. Bridging the ancient entheogenic traditions of the Balkans with contemporary scientific inquiry has the potential to enrich the global field of psychedelic research. The unique psychoactive species and cultural perspectives from this region may contribute significantly to the development of novel therapeutic approaches and to a broader understanding of consciousness and well-being. Emphasizing cultural context and indigenous knowledge, future frameworks should promote informed, balanced, and respectful use of these natural substances, supporting individual and collective health while honoring ancestral wisdom. By integrating traditional insights with modern evidence-based frameworks, we open the door to a more holistic, context-sensitive future for psychedelic science and application.