A Scoping Review of Youth Development Measures to Mitigate Drug and Alcohol Abuse Among Young People in the SADC Region

Abstract

This scoping review study examines seven governments and some non-governmental organisations’ youth development mechanisms in response to drug and alcohol abuse among their youth. This scoping review, including sources from 39 studies and 16 government or organisational reports, are reviewed to investigate youth development measures to mitigate drug and alcohol abuse. This study revealed that youth development mechanisms, such as outreach youth work, digital youth work, and detached youth work, lead to significant changes in risky behaviours. The study further revealed that non-governmental organisations play a critical role in solving drug- and alcohol-related challenges among youth by deterring local merchants from selling drugs and alcohol to underage customers and by strictly regulating their promotion and advertising. Effective mechanisms to develop self-efficacy, purpose, and meaning in life among youth are needed. This study also highlights the need for a joint effort between government departments, local municipalities, non-governmental youth-focused organisations, and schools to come up with effective youth work strategies. This study concludes by proposing the establishment of a Southern African Development Community (SADC) Youth Work Association and the professionalisation of youth work in the region. This will ensure that intervention programmes are implemented by professional youth workers who have the skills and knowledge to work with vulnerable young people.

1. Introduction

Substance abuse among young people has become a pressing public health and social concern in Southern Africa, with drug and alcohol use contributing significantly to poor health, crime, school dropout, and unemployment. The problem is not confined to individual behaviour but reflects broader structural, cultural, and economic conditions that shape youth development across the region (Dzinamarira et al., 2023; Mukwenha et al., 2022; Watson et al., 2023). High levels of substance abuse are reported in both urban and rural contexts, with marginalised communities particularly affected due to poverty, unemployment, limited recreational opportunities, and weak family support structures (Mulaudzi, 2018; Setlalentoa et al., 2015). These realities demand multi-sectoral and culturally responsive interventions, grounded in both community and school-based strategies, to curb the prevalence of drug and alcohol misuse among the youth.

Globally, adolescent drug and alcohol use is recognised as a developmental risk that undermines educational attainment, psychosocial wellbeing, and long-term health (WHO, 2014). In sub-Saharan Africa, youth constitute the majority of the population, and the growing burden of substance abuse threatens to derail progress toward social and economic development goals (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC], 2018). Recent evidence links substance uses to risky sexual behaviour, gender-based violence, and exposure to HIV/AIDS, further exacerbating the vulnerabilities of young people in the region (Letamo et al., 2016; Riva et al., 2018). Against this backdrop, Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries have intensified prevention efforts through national drug control policies, youth development initiatives, and community engagement programmes (Department of Social Development, 2013; Ndawonde, 2020).

In South Africa, the prevalence of youth drug and alcohol use remains alarmingly high. Studies identify boredom, poverty, and social dislocation as major risk factors, particularly in low-income townships where recreational alternatives are scarce (Van ZuI, 2013; Chauke, 2023). Corruption has also hindered the construction of youth centres intended to equip young people with entrepreneurial and life skills (Mulaudzi, 2018). Community-based interventions, such as chess clubs, ecological recovery projects, and dance groups, have been promoted as innovative ways to engage youth positively and divert them from substance misuse (Setlalentoa et al., 2015). Collaboration between religious organisations and civil society has further strengthened anti-drug efforts, while government investment in recreational facilities continues to be advocated (Ndawonde, 2020). At the family level, empowering parents with the skills to raise resilient children is considered central to prevention, as supportive home environments foster higher self-esteem and reduce susceptibility to peer pressure (Mudavanhu & Schenck, 2014). Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) also play a vital role in monitoring local merchants, preventing the sale of drugs and alcohol to minors, and regulating advertising (Department of Social Development, 2013).

Botswana faces similar challenges, with research showing high levels of alcohol and drug use among adolescents, often accompanied by ignorance of associated risks (Letamo et al., 2016; Diraditsile & Rasesigo, 2018). Substance abuse has been linked to teenage pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections, and HIV (Letamo et al., 2016). In response, the government introduced a national alcohol policy and the presidential alcohol levy, combining regulatory measures with awareness campaigns (Pitso & Obot, 2011). Studies show that while these initiatives have improved public knowledge and influenced attitudes, behavioural change remains a complex process requiring stronger community participation (Riva et al., 2018).

Zimbabwean youth are similarly vulnerable, with substance abuse escalating in recent years due to socio-economic hardship, trauma, and the psychological toll of the COVID-19 pandemic (Dzinamarira et al., 2023; Mukwenha et al., 2022). Easy access to drugs, coupled with a lack of recreational facilities in urban areas, has contributed to the crisis. The migration of parents in search of work has further weakened family support systems, leaving many children unsupervised and exposed to peer influence (Makwanise, 2023; Pufall et al., 2017). The government’s response has included the National Drug Master Plan 2020–2025 and law enforcement initiatives, complemented by interventions from NGOs, churches, and the Tariro Youth Drug Abuse Intervention Module (TYDAIM), which is informed by Christian Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (Koenig, 2012; Maraire et al., 2022). These initiatives highlight the importance of integrating psychological, spiritual, and community dimensions in tackling drug abuse.

Namibia also reports high levels of alcohol consumption, with more than half of young people aged 13–30 engaging in drinking (Barth & Hubbard, 2009). Alcohol misuse contributes to violence, legal troubles, and HIV risk-taking (WHO, 2014; Netope et al., 2023). Community-based responses, such as the Drug Action Group (DAG), Christelike Alkoholiste Diens (CAD), and the Horizon Project, provide aftercare and prevention services, often in collaboration with schools and health institutions (Strijdom, 1992). However, the scale of these efforts is limited compared to the magnitude of the problem, underscoring the need for more comprehensive strategies.

In Zambia, drug and alcohol misuse among secondary school learners poses a serious threat to educational outcomes. Research shows that substance use undermines academic performance, increases absenteeism, and raises the likelihood of school dropout (Masiye & Ndhlovu, 2015; Zemba, 2022). Peer influence, low self-esteem, and poor refusal skills are identified as major contributing factors (Nyimbili et al., 2019). However, peer education programmes have shown considerable promise, with trained peer educators serving as role models and providing counselling support (Midford et al., 2000; Mertens & Wilson, 2012). These interventions leverage the fact that young people are more likely to emulate their peers than respond to adult authority, making them effective channels for behaviour change.

In Eswatini, research shows that cannabis production and alcohol abuse among adolescents are prevalent, with approximately 21.7% of youth reportedly addicted to drugs (Mhlongo, 2005). Peer culture and the easy availability of substances have contributed to early onset of use, leading to school failure and behavioural problems. In Lesotho, alcohol misuse is widespread and linked to poor academic performance, memory loss, vandalism, and risky sexual practices, including date rape and unprotected intercourse (Mofokeng, 2013). The Thaba-Bosiu Centre, established in 1989, plays a central role in prevention and rehabilitation through workshops, campaigns, and entrepreneurial training that discourage harmful practices such as home-brewing (Masihleho & Khalanyane, 2009; Ranotsi et al., 2012).

Across the SADC region, early detection of risky behaviours remains essential for prevention. Screening tools such as the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) have been successfully applied in youth populations to identify problems early and facilitate referrals for counselling and treatment (Kelly et al., 2019; Triolo et al., 2022). Such tools, when integrated into school health systems and community programmes, can prevent escalation to dependence. Collectively, the evidence demonstrates that substance abuse is a multidimensional challenge requiring integrated interventions that combine family support, community engagement, school-based prevention, and national policy measures.

This study contributes to the regional evidence base by synthesising interventions that address youth substance abuse in South Africa and other SADC countries. By highlighting the strengths and limitations of community, school, and policy-level strategies, the study underscores the need for holistic, youth-centred, and culturally sensitive approaches. Understanding what has worked in different contexts is critical for informing future interventions that can reduce the burden of substance misuse and foster positive youth development across Southern Africa.

While individual countries in the SADC region have implemented various policies and programmes to address youth substance abuse, there remains a lack of region-wide synthesis of youth development-oriented interventions. Previous research has largely focused on the prevalence and causes of substance use or on interventions within single countries, without systematically comparing approaches and effectiveness across multiple SADC states. This review addresses this gap by providing a cross-country examination of youth development measures, identifying common strengths, limitations, and opportunities for regional collaboration.

This study is guided by the following research questions.

(i)

What youth development intervention programmes are implemented by seven governments and non-governmental organisations to mitigate drug and alcohol abuse among youth in the SADC region?

(ii)

What effective youth development or youth work models can be used to address drug and alcohol abuse among youths in the SADC region?

2. Materials and Methods

This study adopted a scoping review to examine youth development interventions aimed at reducing alcohol and drug abuse in seven Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries. The objective was to explore the roles of these interventions and to advocate for sustainable, long-term mitigation strategies. A scoping review methodology was employed to analyse existing literature, policy frameworks, and youth development programmes relevant to substance abuse prevention. Arksey and O’Malley’s (2005) five-stage framework was used to guide the scoping review process of this study. Scoping review methods are vital where evidence is heterogeneous and plays an important part in providing direction to future development. The five-stage framework includes the following stages: (1) identifying the research question, (2) identifying relevant studies, (3) selecting relevant studies, (4) charting the data, and (5) collating, summarizing, and reporting the results. This scoping review adhered to the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines (Tricco et al., 2018). Details of the steps involved in the policy and government document selection process are presented as Figure 1. The database search was conducted on platforms including a wide range of credible materials, including government policy documents, peer-reviewed journal articles, and organisational reports focused on youth development and substance abuse mitigation. In addition, database searches were also conducted across multiple databases and platforms, including Academic Search Complete, ERIC, MEDLINE, SocINDEX, Sage Journals Online, PubMed, and Google Scholar. The official websites of governments and non-profit organisations involved in youth development were also reviewed. These sources offered diverse and comprehensive insights into the implementation and effectiveness of youth-focused substance abuse interventions across the selected countries.

The search strategy combined keywords and Boolean operators tailored to each database, for example: (“youth” OR “young people” OR “adolescents”) AND (“substance abuse” OR “drug use” OR “alcohol use”) AND (“Southern African Development Community” OR “SADC” OR “Botswana” OR “Zimbabwe” OR “Namibia” OR “Zambia” OR “Eswatini” OR “Lesotho” OR “South Africa”).

2.1. Inclusion Criteria

The following inclusion criteria were used in this review:

(i)

Study designs: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods research; policy analyses; programme evaluations.

(ii)

Participants: young people aged 14–35 years in any of the seven selected SADC countries; interventions involving youth workers, teachers, social workers, health practitioners, or NGOs.

(iii)

Publication type: peer-reviewed journal articles, government reports, organisational policy documents, and grey literature.

(iv)

Language: English.

2.2. Exclusion Criteria

We excluded the following:

(i)

Studies not focused on youth-specific substance abuse interventions.

(ii)

Studies conducted outside the seven target countries.

(iii)

Opinion pieces or commentaries without intervention description.

(iv)

Studies in other languages than English

From the database search, a total of 200 articles, 20 government policies, and 30 government documents were identified. Following this identification, title and abstract screening was conducted. The selection of articles, government policies, and government documents was performed manually by the researchers, who assessed the suitability of each identified source for inclusion or exclusion in the study.

Data from this scoping review were analysed using a thematic analysis framework. The process involved several iterative stages: Familiarisation: We became familiar with the content of policy documents, programme reports, and articles. Systematic Coding: Relevant information concerning intervention strategies, outcomes, and contextual factors was systematically coded. Theme Development: We identified and refined recurring patterns and concepts to develop key themes. Final Categorization: Key themes emerging from the data were categorized and defined. This analytical approach allowed for a nuanced understanding of the effectiveness, commonalities, and contextual variations in youth development initiatives addressing alcohol and drug abuse in the SADC region. While this scoping review was conducted manually without the use of software, researchers carefully assessed sources against the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Inclusion criteria, we specifically looked for government policies and documents detailing intervention strategies aimed at addressing alcohol and drug use among young people aged 14–35 years old in the SADC region. For published articles, we focused on those discussing strategies to reduce alcohol and drug use among young people in the SADC region, particularly if they involved young people, youth workers, teachers, social workers, or psychologists as participants. Exclusion criteria: Conversely, we excluded all government policies, documents, programmes, and articles that discussed alcohol and drug abuse generally but did not specifically focus on youth development interventions.

Since this scoping review was solely based on secondary data from previous published work, government policies and documents, it was not necessary to obtain ethical approval from the university.

3. Results and Discussion

This scoping review aimed to examine and identify youth development measures to mitigate drug and alcohol abuse. A total of 55 sources, including articles, government policy, and government documents, were included in the final analysis. The publication based on the methods used are shown in Figure 2.

An analysis of the research design used in this scoping review of youth development measures to mitigate drug and alcohol abuse among young people in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region revealed that qualitative methods were the most prevalent, appearing in 36 out of 57 studies (63%). This dominance highlights a strong focus on exploring the lived experiences, perceptions, and contextual factors influencing substance use among youth. Such studies often delve into social, cultural, and environmental determinants, providing rich, narrative insights into the drivers of substance abuse and the effectiveness of various interventions. Quantitative methods were employed in only nine studies (16%), indicating a limited emphasis on statistical measurement and generalisable findings. Mixed methods, combining both qualitative and quantitative approaches, appeared in six studies (11%), suggesting a growing interest in integrative methodologies that capture both depth and breadth.

Additionally, five studies (9%) were categorised as “not applicable,” referring to conceptual and policy-based documents, while one study (1%) did not specify its methodological approach. The qualitative dominance suggests the field is currently more focused on exploration, theory building, and understanding processes (“how” and “why”) rather than definitively establishing causal outcomes (“how much” or “what works best”).

This methodological imbalance has profound implications. The lack of strong quantitative evidence, particularly from controlled trials or large-scale outcome evaluations, severely hinders the ability to attribute reductions in substance abuse directly to specific youth development programmes or to compare their relative effectiveness and cost-efficiency. Consequently, policymakers and funders face significant challenges in identifying which interventions merit broader replication or scaling, as the existing evidence base, while rich in contextual understanding, offers limited proof of measurable impact at scale.

An Overview of Youth Development Measures in the SADC Region

According to SADC’s 2013–2016 Regional Programme, the prevention of drug and alcohol addiction among young people is a top priority in their youth development strategy and policy. This programme includes the establishment of a regional surveillance network called the SADC Epidemiology Network on Drug Use (SENDU). SENDU’s goal is to establish a sentinel surveillance system targeting substance misuse in all member states (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC], 2013). To deal with the growing problem of drug and alcohol abuse among youth, many member states have developed national youth policies and strategic plans. In South Africa, for example, the government has created a National Drug Master Plan, adopting a multi-sectoral approach to combat drug misuse as a prominent health concern in many communities (Department of Social Development, 2019). Non-governmental organisations recognise the fact that adolescents play an important role in preventing drug and alcohol consumption among young people despite minimal resources and no official funding. Their primary job is community outreach to inform young people of the services they provide such as home visiting programmes to help young individuals battling with substance misuse to get back on track (Machethe et al., 2022).

Table 1. Summary of Included Studies and Country Context.

Country	Author/s (Year)	Method	Key Issue
South Africa	United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC] (2013, 2020)	Mixed-method	(a) High rates of drug and alcohol abuse among youth. (b) Boredom in low socio-economic communities. (c) Corruption hindering development of youth centres.
	Department of Social Development (2013)	Mixed-method
	Machethe et al. (2022)	Qualitative
	National Youth Policy (2021)	Qualitative
	Mulaudzi (2018)	Qualitative
	Setlalentoa et al. (2015)	Qualitative
	Van ZuI (2013)	Mixed-method
	Nyashanu and Visser (2022)	Qualitative
	Ndawonde (2020)	Qualitative
	Mudavanhu and Schenck (2014)	Mixed-method
	Department of Social Development (2013).	Qualitative
		Mixed-method
	Ngcobo (2018)	Qualitative
	Naidoo et al. (2016)	Qualitative
	Muthelo et al. (2023)
	Das et al. (2016)	Qualitative
	Tomokawa et al. (2020)
	Cupido (2017)	Qualitative
	Saba et al. (2021)	Qualitative
Botswana	Riva et al. (2018)	Quantitative	(a) Increasing alcohol and drug use among adolescents. (b) Public health risk and teenage pregnancy
	Diraditsile and Rasesigo (2018)	Qualitative
	Letamo et al. (2016)	Quantitative
	Pitso and Obot (2011)	Qualitative
Zimbabwe	Dzinamarira et al. (2023)	Qualitative	(a) Rising drug and alcohol abuse in urban areas (b) Socio-economic stress, trauma, and mental health issues (c) Lack of parental involvement and
	Matutu and Mususa (2019)	Qualitative
	Mukwenha et al. (2022)	Qualitative
	Makwanise (2023)	Quantitative
	Pufall et al. (2017)	Quantitative
	Mahiya (2016)	Qualitative
	Macheka and Masuku (2019)	Qualitative
	Nhapi (2019)	Qualitative
	Maraire et al. (2020)	Quantitative
	Makande (2017)	Qualitative
	Magaya (2017)	Qualitative
	Nhapi and Mathende (2016)	Qualitative
	Matunhu and Matunhu (2016)	Qualitative
	Chikwanah (2019)	Not applicable
	Kumuterera (2019)	Not applicable
	Zimonyo (2020)	Not applicable
	Grim and Grim (2019)	Qualitative
	Koenig (2012)	Qualitative
	Pearce (2016)	Not applicable
	Maraire et al. (2022)	Qualitative
Namibia	Netope et al. (2023)	Quantitative	(a) High alcohol consumption (53.5% youth aged 13–30) (b) Alcohol leads to violence, HIV risk-taking, school issues.
	Strijdom (1992)	Quantitative
Zambia	Masiye and Ndhlovu (2015)	Qualitative	(a) One in three adolescents consumes alcohol (b) Drug use affects academics, social behaviour, and physical health
	Shibalika and Chileshe (2022)	Qualitative
	Mphande et al. (2023)	Qualitative
	Zemba (2022)	Not specified
	Ekpenyong (2012)	Quantitative
	Masiye and Ndhlovu (2015)	Qualitative
	Nyimbili et al. (2019)	Qualitative
	Zemba (2022)	Mixed-method
	Midford et al. (2000)	Qualitative
	Mertens and Wilson (2012)	Not applicable
Eswatini	Mhlongo (2005)	Quantitative	Peer pressure and societal norms
Lesotho	Mofokeng (2013)	Qualitative	Poor academic performance linked to alcohol abuse.
	Ranotsi et al. (2012)	Quantitative
	Masihleho and Khalanyane (2009)	Qualitative

summarises the evidence on youth drug and alcohol abuse across seven SADC countries, highlighting both the methods used and the main issues identified. In South Africa (16 studies), the research relies heavily on qualitative and mixed-method designs, pointing to boredom, poverty, and corruption as key drivers of substance misuse among young people. Community- and faith-based interventions, family empowerment, and recreational activities, such as chess and ecological initiatives, have been promoted as preventive strategies (Mulaudzi, 2018; Setlalentoa et al., 2015; Van ZuI, 2013).

In Botswana (four studies), both quantitative and qualitative approaches were used to explore adolescent drug and alcohol use, with a strong policy focus. National measures, such as the presidential alcohol levy and sales restrictions, have complemented educational campaigns that seek to reshape knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours toward alcohol (Pitso & Obot, 2011; Letamo et al., 2016). The evidence from Zimbabwe (20 studies) shows a sharp rise in substance abuse in urban areas, driven by socio-economic hardship, unemployment, trauma, and depression. Studies also document community responses, including the role of churches, NGOs, and the government’s National Drug Master Plan (Nhapi, 2019; Maraire et al., 2020).

The research from Namibia (two studies) is largely quantitative, highlighting alarmingly high alcohol consumption rates among adolescents, with over 53% of youth aged 13–30 reporting use. The consequences range from risky sexual behaviour to school dropout and legal troubles, with interventions by the Drug Action Group and Horizon Project providing some limited support (Strijdom, 1992; Netope et al., 2023). In Zambia (10 studies), primarily qualitative studies document widespread substance abuse among secondary school learners, linking it to poor academic performance, absenteeism, and dropout. Peer education and counselling appear particularly promising, as peer influence carries more weight among youth than adult authority (Masiye & Ndhlovu, 2015; Zemba, 2022).

The evidence from Eswatini (one study) remains limited but points to the influence of peer culture and cannabis availability in fuelling adolescent drug use (Mhlongo, 2005). Finally, Lesotho (three studies) highlights alcohol abuse as a dominant concern, linked to poor academic outcomes, health challenges, and risky sexual behaviours. The Thaba-Bosiu Centre has emerged as a central institution in addressing these challenges through community workshops and vocational skills programmes (Mofokeng, 2013; Masihleho & Khalanyane, 2009).

Overall, Table 1 reveals that South Africa and Zimbabwe provide the richest qualitative insights, while Botswana and Namibia contribute stronger quantitative prevalence data. Zambia stands out for its innovative peer-led strategies, whereas Eswatini and Lesotho demonstrate significant research gaps. Collectively, the evidence underscores that youth substance abuse in the SADC region is shaped by structural, cultural, and social factors, requiring multi-layered interventions at community, policy, and school levels.

The evidence in

Table 2. Summary of Intervention Strategies addressing drug and alcohol abuse in the seven countries.

Country	Intervention
South Africa	(a) Community-based interventions like chess, reading, dancing, and ecological recovery initiatives. (b) Collaboration between religious-based organisations and civil society to combat drug and alcohol abuse. (c) Family empowerment programmes for responsible parenting. (d) Non-governmental organisations preventing underage substance sales. (e) Recreational facilities providing life skills.
Botswana	(a) National policy encouraging moderate alcohol consumption through public education. (b) Alcohol levy and restrictions on sale (c) Minimum age for alcohol purchase. (d) Informational programmes about alcohol and drug abuse.
Zimbabwe	(a) National Drug Master Plan 2020–2025 for reducing substance abuse. (b) Law enforcement awareness programmes on drug abuse.
Namibia	(a) Drug Action Group (DAG) campaigns. (b) Horizon Project (collaboration between UNAM & Ministry of Health). (c) Aftercare groups (e.g., CAD).
Zambia	(a) Peer educator programmes. (b) Drug abuse education and awareness campaigns. (c) Use of peer counselling to delay abuse.
Eswatini	(a) National coordination (with UNDP).
Lesotho	(a) Thaba-Bosiu Centre prevention & treatment programmes. (b) Media, workshops, and campaigns.

demonstrates that countries within the SADC have adopted diverse intervention strategies to curb drug and alcohol abuse among young people. In South Africa, interventions have largely been community-oriented, focusing on providing alternatives to boredom, which has been strongly linked with substance misuse in low socio-economic areas. Recreational activities, such as chess, reading, dancing, and ecological recovery initiatives, have been promoted to redirect youth energy into constructive outlets (Van ZuI, 2013). Beyond recreational programmes, religious-based organisations and civil society partnerships have been mobilised to combat substance misuse, highlighting the importance of collective social responsibility in drug prevention (Ndawonde, 2020). Family empowerment programmes, which train parents to nurture children with resilience and self-esteem, further illustrate the recognition that prevention begins within the household (Mudavanhu & Schenck, 2014). Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) also play a central role, particularly in discouraging the sale of alcohol and drugs to underage youth while simultaneously providing youth with life skills through recreational facilities (Department of Social Development, 2013; Ngcobo, 2018).

Botswana’s interventions take a more policy-oriented approach, with the government introducing measures such as the presidential alcohol levy, restrictions on sales, and minimum purchase age requirements. These measures are complemented by extensive informational programmes aimed at reshaping attitudes and knowledge about the risks of alcohol and drug use (Pitso & Obot, 2011; Letamo et al., 2016). In Zimbabwe, strategies have centred on state-led initiatives such as the National Drug Master Plan (2020–2025), supported by law enforcement awareness campaigns in schools and communities (Nhapi, 2019; Maraire et al., 2020). Namibia has relied on a mixture of government and civil society campaigns, including the Drug Action Group (DAG) and Christelike Alkoholiste Diens (CAD), as well as the Horizon Project, run in collaboration with the University of Namibia and the Ministry of Health (Strijdom, 1992).

In Zambia, peer-based strategies have been at the forefront, with peer educators and counsellors being trained to influence their peers positively and delay the onset of drug use (Masiye & Ndhlovu, 2015; Mertens & Wilson, 2012). The Kingdom of Eswatini, meanwhile, has focused on national-level coordination supported by international partners such as the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), while Lesotho has relied on the Thaba-Bosiu Centre, which runs both prevention and treatment programmes, alongside workshops and campaigns that raise awareness of the dangers of substance misuse (Masihleho & Khalanyane, 2009). Collectively, these strategies illustrate a spectrum of approaches, ranging from community-based and peer-led interventions to policy-driven and institutional measures, which demonstrates that no single intervention can be relied upon; rather, a multi-layered strategy is necessary across the region.

The evidence presented in

Table 3. Summary of Reported Effectiveness of Intervention Strategies used in addressing drug and alcohol abuse in the seven countries.

Country	Effectiveness
South Africa	(a) Community-based initiatives are promising in reducing substance abuse, particularly in townships. (b) Collaboration between religious and civil society organisations is crucial in reducing substance abuse.
Botswana	(a) Informational approaches have positively impacted knowledge and attitudes towards alcohol and drugs. (b) National policies and restrictions, like the alcohol levy, have helped curb abuse.
Zimbabwe	The National Drug Master Plan has been effective in reducing youth drug use through legal and social measures.
Namibia	(a) Effective in targeted areas. (b) Continued efforts are needed for broader impact.
Zambia	(a) Peer education has been shown to delay or reduce abuse. (b) Inconsistent coverage, needs more widespread implementation.
Eswatini	Successful in creating awareness and providing treatment.
Lesotho	(a) Successful in creating awareness and providing treatment. (b) Financial constraints on expansion limit effectiveness.

shows that, while these interventions have had promising outcomes, their effectiveness has been uneven across the region. In South Africa, community-based programmes that combine recreational opportunities with faith-based and civil society collaboration have shown potential in reducing youth substance misuse, particularly in township contexts where structural disadvantage fuels high rates of abuse (Nyashanu & Visser, 2022; Muthelo et al., 2023). Botswana’s mix of policy restrictions, alcohol levies, and educational campaigns has been relatively successful in shifting knowledge and attitudes around substance use. Letamo et al. (2016) found that these approaches not only improved citizens’ awareness of drug risks but also helped reduce risky alcohol consumption patterns among adolescents.

Zimbabwe’s National Drug Master Plan has also achieved some success, particularly in leveraging law enforcement to deter drug use. Fear of prosecution has dissuaded some youth from substance abuse; however, as Nhapi (2019) and Maraire et al. (2020) point out, relapse remains common after legal sentences are served, reflecting the limits of punitive approaches without sufficient rehabilitative support. In Namibia, targeted interventions by groups such as DAG and the Horizon Project have shown effectiveness in specific areas, but their limited coverage means that broader national impact remains constrained (Netope et al., 2023).

Zambia’s peer education model has been particularly effective in delaying initiation into drug use, as peer role models resonate strongly with young people (Midford et al., 2000; Masiye & Ndhlovu, 2015). Nevertheless, inconsistent coverage and insufficient institutional support hinder the scaling up of this promising intervention. In Eswatini and Lesotho, national and NGO-led programmes have proven valuable in creating awareness and offering treatment opportunities. For example, the Thaba-Bosiu Centre’s alternative livelihood programmes in Lesotho have improved both community awareness and socioeconomic wellbeing among participants (Masihleho & Khalanyane, 2009). Yet, in both countries, the effectiveness of such interventions has been limited by financial constraints and a lack of resources, which restrict expansion and sustainability.

Taken together, the findings in Table 3 underscore that interventions across the SADC region have produced important short-term gains, particularly in raising awareness and reducing initiation into drug use; however, structural challenges such as poverty, unemployment, limited coverage, and weak monitoring frameworks undermine long-term success. These lessons suggest that, while policy restrictions and law enforcement can yield immediate behavioural changes, sustainable reductions in youth substance abuse require stronger investment in community-based programmes, family support systems, peer-led initiatives, and adequate funding to ensure scalability and continuity.

4. Limitation

This review is limited by reliance on secondary sources, which vary in methodological quality and depth of reporting. The exclusion of non-English publications may have omitted relevant local interventions. Additionally, variations in study design and reporting made it difficult to compare intervention effectiveness across countries. A key limitation identified across the included studies is the frequent absence of rigorous outcome evaluation. Many interventions are described in terms of activities and intended goals, without clear measurement of behavioural change, reduction in substance use, or long-term impact. This limits the ability to draw firm conclusions about intervention effectiveness and highlights the need for future research to incorporate robust monitoring and evaluation frameworks.

5. Conclusions

This review demonstrates that all seven Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries examined—South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Zambia, Eswatini, and Lesotho—have implemented a mix of government-led, community-based, and non-governmental youth development interventions to curb substance abuse. While these interventions vary in scope and focus, commonalities include the use of peer education, community outreach, law enforcement partnerships, faith-based support, and recreational programmes. However, effectiveness is often limited by inadequate funding, insufficient trained personnel, and a lack of rigorous outcome evaluation. Strengthening regional cooperation and sharing best practices can enhance the impact of interventions across the SADC region.

The abuse of drugs and alcohol among young people should be prioritised in the SADC to improve youth health and economic development. In order to promote good relationships in families, schools, and youth-focused organisations, a SADC Positive Youth Development (PYD) model is proposed. It must emphasise the importance of early interventions to reduce the risk factors of substance misuse. The PYD model highlights the necessity of long-term youth development strategies to rapidly reduce drug and alcohol usage among young people. Many young people in the SADC region have to deal with unemployment, which drives them to misuse substances as a means of coping. This emphasises the need for the establishment of youth clinics where social workers, psychologists, and youth workers provide mental care in the early phases of substance abuse.

A SADC Youth Service Programme with similar strategies is required to assign unemployed young people to various state-funded non-governmental groups. Its objective must be to raise awareness of the dangers of drug and alcohol abuse. This programme must empower unemployed young people economically by allowing them to earn income through voluntary activities. Finally, these young people must act as ambassadors, persuading their peers to avoid the snare of alcohol and drugs. In this study, we advocate for the establishment of a Drug Youth Café Centre (DYCC) within the SADC region, encompassing the seven countries under discussion in this study. The envisioned DYCC would serve as a dedicated facility where young people can converge to avail themselves of a comprehensive suite of drug education services and emotional support mechanisms facilitated by trained professionals, including youth workers, psychologists, and social workers. This envisioned space is conceived as a platform offering a safe haven for youths grappling with substance misuse, wherein they can not only access vital information but also engage in peer-supported dialogue concerning their personal experiences and the multifaceted challenges encountered in their lives. In the proposed initiative of the DYCC, it is recommended that a comprehensive curriculum be developed to equip young people with essential life skills, including, but not limited to, anger management techniques, strategies for coping with stress, and emotional regulation strategies. By integrating these pivotal components into the educational framework, this initiative aims to mitigate the likelihood of young people resorting to substance abuse, particularly alcohol and illicit drugs, amidst the various challenges they encounter during their formative years.