Macro-Determinants of NEET: An Ecological Study at the Country Level of Analysis for the Period 1997–2020
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data Source and Variables
2.2. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
Supplementary Materials
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Eurostat Statistics on Young People Neither in Employment Nor in Education or Training. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Statistics_on_young_people_neither_in_employment_nor_in_education_or_training (accessed on 17 June 2022).
- Amendola, S. Trends in Rates of NEET (Not in Education, Employment, or Training) Subgroups among Youth Aged 15 to 24 in Italy, 2004–2019. J. Public Health 2022, 30, 2221–2229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Curry, M.; Mooi-Reci, I.; Wooden, M. Parental Joblessness and the Moderating Role of a University Degree on the School-to-Work Transition in Australia and the United States. Soc. Sci. Res. 2019, 81, 61–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Luca, G.; Mazzocchi, P.; Quintano, C.; Rocca, A. Italian NEETs in 2005–2016: Have the Recent Labour Market Reforms Produced Any Effect? CESifo Econ. Stud. 2019, 65, 154–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dorsett, R.; Lucchino, P. Explaining Patterns in the School-to-Work Transition: An Analysis Using Optimal Matching. Adv. Life Course Res. 2014, 22, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Egan, M.; Daly, M.; Delaney, L. Childhood Psychological Distress and Youth Unemployment: Evidence from Two British Cohort Studies. Soc. Sci. Med. 2015, 124, 11–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lőrinc, M.; Ryan, L.; D’Angelo, A.; Kaye, N. De-Individualising the ‘NEET Problem’: An Ecological Systems Analysis. Eur. Educ. Res. J. 2020, 19, 412–427. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Naraswati, N.P.G.; Jatmiko, Y.A. Individual and Province-Level Determinants of Unemployed NEET as Young People’s Productivity Indicator in Indonesia During 2020: A Multilevel Analysis Approach. In Proceedings of the 2021 International Conference on Data Science and Official Statistics (ICDSOS), Jacarta, Indonesia, 13–14 November 2021; Volume 2021, pp. 782–795. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Norasakkunkit, V.; Uchida, Y.; Takemura, K. Evaluating Distal and Proximal Explanations for Withdrawal: A Rejoinder to Varnum and Kwon’s “The Ecology of Withdrawal”. Front. Psychol. 2017, 8, 2085. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Quintano, C.; Mazzocchi, P.; Rocca, A. The Determinants of Italian NEETs and the Effects of the Economic Crisis. Genus 2018, 74, 5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Su, X.; Wong, V.; To, S. Characteristics of Longer-Term versus Transitional NEETs in Hong Kong: Implications for Career Support Services. Br. J. Guid. Couns. 2022, 1–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liszka, D.; Walawender, P. Neet youth–the concept’s presence in the European Union’s youth employment policy and why it is so problematic. Humanit. Soc. Sci. 2018, 25, 179–193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bania, E.V.; Eckhoff, C.; Kvernmo, S. Not Engaged in Education, Employment or Training (NEET) in an Arctic Sociocultural Context: The NAAHS Cohort Study. BMJ Open 2019, 9, e023705. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gariépy, G.; Danna, S.M.; Hawke, L.; Henderson, J.; Iyer, S.N. The Mental Health of Young People Who Are Not in Education, Employment, or Training: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 2022, 57, 1107–1121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gutiérrez-García, R.A.; Benjet, C.; Borges, G.; Méndez Ríos, E.; Medina-Mora, M.E. NEET Adolescents Grown up: Eight-Year Longitudinal Follow-up of Education, Employment and Mental Health from Adolescence to Early Adulthood in Mexico City. Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2017, 26, 1459–1469. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Parola, A.; Donsì, L. Sospesi nel tempo. Inattività e malessere percepito in giovani adulti NEET. Psicol. Della Salut. 2018, 3, 44–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rodwell, L.; Romaniuk, H.; Nilsen, W.; Carlin, J.B.; Lee, K.J.; Patton, G.C. Adolescent Mental Health and Behavioural Predictors of Being NEET: A Prospective Study of Young Adults Not in Employment, Education, or Training. Psychol. Med. 2018, 48, 861–871. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Symonds, J.; Dietrich, J.; Chow, A.; Salmela-Aro, K. Mental Health Improves after Transition from Comprehensive School to Vocational Education or Employment in England: A National Cohort Study. Dev. Psychol. 2016, 52, 652–665. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tayfur, S.N.; Prior, S.; Roy, A.S.; Maciver, D.; Forsyth, K.; Fitzpatrick, L.I. Associations between Adolescent Psychosocial Factors and Disengagement from Education and Employment in Young Adulthood among Individuals with Common Mental Health Problems. J. Youth Adolesc. 2022, 51, 1397–1408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Uchida, Y.; Norasakkunkit, V. The NEET and Hikikomori Spectrum: Assessing the Risks and Consequences of Becoming Culturally Marginalized. Front. Psychol. 2015, 6, 1117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Furlong, A. The Japanese Hikikomori Phenomenon: Acute Social Withdrawal among Young People. Sociol. Rev. 2008, 56, 309–325. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Norasakkunkit, V.; Uchida, Y. Psychological Consequences of Postindustrial Anomie on Self and Motivation Among Japanese Youth. J. Soc. Issues 2011, 67, 774–786. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Suwa, M.; Suzuki, K. The Phenomenon of “Hikikomori” (Social Withdrawal) and the Socio-Cultural Situation in Japan Today. J. Psychopathol. 2013, 19, 191–198. [Google Scholar]
- Teo, A.R.; Stufflebam, K.W.; Kato, T.A. The Intersection of Culture and Solitude: The Hikikomori Phenomenon in Japan. In The Handbook of Solitude; Coplan, R.J., Bowker, J.C., Eds.; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2013; pp. 445–460. ISBN 978-1-118-42736-1. [Google Scholar]
- Toivonen, T.; Norasakkunkit, V.; Uchida, Y. Unable to Conform, Unwilling to Rebel? Youth, Culture, and Motivation in Globalizing Japan. Front. Psychol. 2011, 2, 207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Varnum, M.E.W.; Kwon, J.Y. The Ecology of Withdrawal. Commentary: The NEET and Hikikomori Spectrum: Assessing the Risks and Consequences of Becoming Culturally Marginalized. Front. Psychol. 2016, 7, 764. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Del Giudice, M.; Gangestad, S.W.; Kaplan, H.S. Life History Theory and Evolutionary Psychology. In The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology: Foundations, 2nd ed; John Wiley Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2016; Volume 1, pp. 88–114. ISBN 978-1-118-75588-4. [Google Scholar]
- Kaplan, H.S.; Gangestad, S.W. Life History Theory and Evolutionary Psychology. In The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology; John Wiley Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2005; pp. 68–95. ISBN 978-0-471-26403-3. [Google Scholar]
- Brumbach, B.H.; Figueredo, A.J.; Ellis, B.J. Effects of Harsh and Unpredictable Environments in Adolescence on Development of Life History Strategies: A Longitudinal Test of an Evolutionary Model. Hum. Nat. 2009, 20, 25–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ellis, B.J.; Figueredo, A.J.; Brumbach, B.H.; Schlomer, G.L. Fundamental Dimensions of Environmental Risk: The Impact of Harsh versus Unpredictable Environments on the Evolution and Development of Life History Strategies. Hum. Nat. 2009, 20, 204–268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Griskevicius, V.; Delton, A.W.; Robertson, T.E.; Tybur, J.M. Environmental Contingency in Life History Strategies: The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Reproductive Timing. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 2011, 100, 241–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hackman, J.; Hruschka, D. Fast Life Histories, Not Pathogens, Account for State-Level Variation in Homicide, Child Maltreatment, and Family Ties in the U.S. Evol. Hum. Behav. 2013, 34, 118–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rotella, A.; Varnum, M.E.W.; Sng, O.; Grossmann, I. Increasing Population Densities Predict Decreasing Fertility Rates over Time: A 174-Nation Investigation. Am. Psychol. 2021, 76, 933–946. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bruno, G.S.F.; Marelli, E.; Signorelli, M. The Rise of NEET and Youth Unemployment in EU Regions after the Crisis. Comp. Econ. Stud. 2014, 56, 592–615. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bїngöl, U. The Macroeconomic Determinants of NEET: A Panel Data Analysis for Fragile Five Countries and Russia. J. Manag. Econ. Res. 2020, 18, 173–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Caroleo, F.E.; Rocca, A.; Mazzocchi, P.; Quintano, C. Being NEET in Europe Before and After the Economic Crisis: An Analysis of the Micro and Macro Determinants. Soc. Indic. Res. 2020, 149, 991–1024. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bono, E.D.; Weber, A.; Winter-Ebmer, R. Fertility and Economic Instability: The Role of Unemployment and Job Displacement. J. Popul. Econ. 2015, 28, 463–478. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- OECD. OECD.Stat. Available online: https://stats.oecd.org/ (accessed on 14 June 2022).
- The World Bank. World Bank Open Data. Free and Open Access to Global Development Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/ (accessed on 27 June 2022).
- Maynou, L.; Ordóñez, J.; Silva, J.I. Convergence and Determinants of Young People Not in Employment, Education or Training: An European Regional Analysis. Econ. Model. 2022, 110, 105808. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Biavaschi, C.; Eichhorst, W.; Giulietti, C.; Kendzia, M.J.; Muravyev, A.; Pieters, J.; Rodríguez-Planas, N.; Schmidl, R.; Zimmermann, K.F. Youth Unemployment and Vocational Training; World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2012. [Google Scholar]
Model 1 a | Model 2 b | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β (SE) | 95%CI | t (df = 234) | B | p | β (SE) | 95%CI | t (df = 73) | B | p | |
Intercept | 0.02 (0.15) | −0.28, 0.32 | 0.14 | 15.48 | 0.89 | −0.07 (0.15) | −0.37, 0.23 | −0.48 | 16.64 | 0.63 |
Time | 0.09 (0.08) | −0.07, 0.25 | 1.12 | 0.10 | 0.26 | −0.001 (0.08) | −0.17, 0.16 | −0.01 | −0.00 | 0.99 |
Gross domestic product (per capita) | −0.47 (0.11) | −0.69, −0.25 | −4.21 | −0.19 | 0.001 | −0.44 (0.15) | −0.75, −0.13 | −2.85 | −0.16 | 0.006 |
Population density | −0.04 (0.16) | −0.36, 0.27 | −0.26 | −0.00 | 0.79 | −0.08 (0.14) | −0.37, 0.21 | −0.56 | −0.01 | 0.57 |
Life expectancy | −0.02 (0.11) | −0.24, 0.2 | −0.20 | −0.06 | 0.84 | 0.02 (0.17) | −0.32, 0.36 | 0.10 | 0.04 | 0.92 |
Social spending | 0.20 (0.07) | 0.05, 0.34 | 2.61 | 0.24 | 0.01 | 0.28 (0.14) | 0.01, 0.55 | 2.09 | 0.36 | 0.04 |
Homicide | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0.02 (0.10) | −0.19, 0.22 | 0.15 | 0.1 | 0.88 |
Part-time job | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | −0.03 (0.16) | −0.35, 0.29 | −0.18 | −0.02 | 0.86 |
Poverty | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0.30 (0.18) | −0.06, 0.66 | 1.66 | 0.46 | 0.10 |
Social inequality | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0.38 (0.2) | −0.01, 0.77 | 1.94 | 40.81 | 0.06 |
Education spending | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | −0.16 (0.09) | −0.34, 0.03 | −1.72 | −1.27 | 0.09 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Amendola, S. Macro-Determinants of NEET: An Ecological Study at the Country Level of Analysis for the Period 1997–2020. Youth 2022, 2, 384-390. https://doi.org/10.3390/youth2030028
Amendola S. Macro-Determinants of NEET: An Ecological Study at the Country Level of Analysis for the Period 1997–2020. Youth. 2022; 2(3):384-390. https://doi.org/10.3390/youth2030028
Chicago/Turabian StyleAmendola, Simone. 2022. "Macro-Determinants of NEET: An Ecological Study at the Country Level of Analysis for the Period 1997–2020" Youth 2, no. 3: 384-390. https://doi.org/10.3390/youth2030028