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Article

Resistance Training or Whey Protein as an Intervention to Preserve Lean Mass in Men Observing Ramadan

by
Ahmed S. Amjed
1,
Arwa Abdelhakiem
1,
Natalie Allen
1,
Cory Brune
2,
Matthew L. Sokoloski
3 and
Ryan A. Gordon
1,*
1
School of Health Sciences, Missouri State University, 901 S National Ave, Springfield, MO 65897, USA
2
Jefferson City Medical Group, 3520 W Edgewood Dr, Jefferson City, MO 65109, USA
3
School of Health Promotion & Kinesiology, Texas Woman’s University, 304 Administration Dr, Denton, TX 76201, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Physiologia 2024, 4(4), 404-413; https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia4040026
Submission received: 25 September 2024 / Revised: 8 November 2024 / Accepted: 14 November 2024 / Published: 16 November 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resistance Training Is Medicine)
Versions Notes

Abstract

Background: Individuals observe Ramadan fasting for ~11 h per day for 28–30 days, which can negatively affect lean mass. Resistance training or increased protein intake can potentially preserve lean mass in these individuals. Methods: Twenty-three young and healthy adult Muslim men were divided into three groups: Ramadan fasting (RAM), Ramadan fasting combined with resistance training (RAM + RT), and Ramadan fasting combined with 30 g of daily whey protein (RAM + WH). Participants’ body mass, body mass index (BMI), body fat percentage, fat mass, and lean mass were measured the week prior to and during the last week of Ramadan via a stadiometer and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Results: Body mass (kg) was decreased for all three groups (RAM = −1%, RAM + RT = −1%, RAM + WH = −1.3%; p = 0.033), though there were no differences between groups. Lean mass (kg) was decreased for all three groups (RAM = −1%, RAM + RT = −1%, RAM + WH = −2%; p = 0.013), though there were no differences between groups. No differences were observed for body weight, BMI, or body fat percentage. Conclusions: These results indicate resistance training or whey protein did not provide any advantage for preserving lean mass in individuals participating in Ramadan fasting.

1. Introduction

Observation of Ramadan requires individuals to abstain from food and drink (including water) from sunrise to sunset, which can range from 8 to 18+ h each day for the 28–30 days of Ramadan depending on a person’s geographical location [1,2]. Similar to popular dietary strategies that emphasize energy restriction (intermittent fasting, alternate-day fasting, time-restricted feeding), Ramadan fasting can cause changes in body mass and composition, including changes in body weight and body mass index (BMI), body fat percentage, and fat mass [1,2,3]. Ramadan fasting also has the potential to negatively affect lean mass [2,4,5,6], though some studies have reported equivocal or negligible findings [7,8]. Interventions that promote skeletal muscle growth or retention can be implemented to preserve lean mass during periods of energy restriction such as Ramadan fasting.
One effective intervention that can increase or preserve lean mass is regular resistance training. During periods of cutting weight, bodybuilders, both recreational and professional, can experience reductions in fat mass while preserving lean mass by performing resistance training [9,10,11]. Studies in which individuals practicing Ramadan fasting performed resistance training have reported preservation of lean mass, though several of these studies used recreational bodybuilders or athletes [12,13,14], limiting the application of these findings to the general population. Methods for assessing lean mass can also differ between studies, limiting how these findings can be interpreted. Many studies investigating Ramadan fasting’s effects on body composition have used skinfold calipers or bioelectrical impedance devices [1,2,5]. Given the potential for disparities in body composition measures when using different assessment techniques [15], some level of standard(s) should be considered when assessing changes in body composition in individuals participating in Ramadan fasting.
A second factor that influences lean mass is overall dietary protein intake. Periods of energy restriction, such as during Ramadan fasting, can increase the oxidation of protein for energy production in the body, causing changes in amino acid content [16]. Consuming adequate protein in planned periods of energy restriction can preserve lean mass [17,18]. Thus, increasing dietary protein intake during observation of Ramadan fasting may assist in the preservation of lean mass while still permitting decreases in body mass and fat mass. Several studies have reported mean dietary protein intake in individuals observing Ramadan fasting [14,19], though few have incorporated supplementary protein (e.g., whey) to determine its effects on body composition and lean mass [20].
Given that few studies have investigated how resistance training or supplementary protein intake can influence body mass and composition in individuals partaking in Ramadan fasting, we investigated how Ramadan fasting affects body mass and composition, including body weight and BMI, body fat percentage, fat mass, and lean mass, when combined with resistance training or daily supplementary protein intake. This study aimed to contribute to the existing literature on the physiological effects of fasting and explore practical interventions for maintaining lean mass during Ramadan fasting.

2. Materials and Methods

Thirty (n = 30) young (23 ± 3.5 years) healthy Muslim men who observe Ramadan were recruited for this study. Participants were excluded from this study if they were obese (BMI > 30 kg/m2), used tobacco or alcohol regularly within the last three months, had any known cardiovascular, metabolic, or pulmonary disease, or reported the presence of exclusionary criteria following a self-administered health-history screening questionnaire at their first research visit (Visit 1). In total, 7 of the 30 individuals recruited for this study presented with one or more of the exclusionary criteria or did not complete the study’s requirements. Therefore, 23 participants completed the study and were analyzed in the Section 3 and Section 4. All methodology and procedures used in this study were in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and were approved by Missouri State University’s Institutional Review Board (no. 258/02-21-2024).

2.1. Procedures

2.1.1. Visit One and Intervention Groups

At Visit 1, the study’s purpose and procedures were explained to participants and informed consent was obtained. Participants then completed a physical activity readiness questionnaire (PAR-Q+) and health-history questionnaire that were used to assess their health status and determine exclusionary criteria. Participants were then randomly assigned to one of three groups (n = 7–8/group). Randomized assignment for participants was achieved using an online random number generator. Group one served as controls and fasted throughout Ramadan with no other intervention (RAM). Group two fasted throughout Ramadan and consumed 30 g of whey protein (Titan Nutrition, Springfield, MO, USA) each day of Ramadan (RAM + WH). The whey protein was consumed each day of Ramadan immediately at the conclusion of fasting (evening). Participants in RAM + WH were sent reminders electronically to ensure they consumed the whey protein daily. Group three fasted throughout Ramadan and participated in a supervised resistance training program three times a week for four weeks (RAM + RT). Resistance training was started at 1700 h for each session of the program. For RAM + RT, participants performed a brief warm-up prior to each session. All exercises were performed for 3 sets and 12 repetitions, with 90 s of inter-set rest and 120 s of inter-exercise rest. Once a participant could complete 12 repetitions for an exercise, the load was increased by 2–5 kg until the participant could perform no more than 12 repetitions. All resistance training program variables other than load were kept constant throughout the four weeks. The resistance training program is shown in Table 1.

2.1.2. DXA Scans

After Visit 1, participants were scheduled for a series of DXA scans at two points throughout Ramadan to assess their lean mass and fat mass. Participants visited the Body Composition Lab at Missouri State University one week prior to Ramadan for their first DXA scan (GE Lunar iDXA, GE, Boston, MA, USA). Prior to the first DXA scan, height (cm) was measured using a stadiometer (Seca, Hamburg, Germany), and weight (kg) was measured using a digital scale (Seca, Hamburg, Germany). Participants returned to the Body Composition Lab within three to five days after the conclusion of Ramadan for their second DXA scan. All scans were performed in a fasted state by a trained technician. The coefficient of variation (CV) for fat mass was 35.5% for the pre-Ramadan DXA scan and 34.0% for the post-Ramadan DXA scan. The CV for lean mass was 14.3% for the pre-Ramadan DXA scan and 14.0% for the post-Ramadan DXA scan.

2.1.3. Statistical Analysis

Differences between pre- and post-Ramadan measurements of body mass (kg), BMI (kg/m2), fat mass (kg), body fat (%), and lean mass (kg) were analyzed using a repeated-measures two-way (intervention × timepoint) ANOVA. Bonferroni post hoc testing was used to make pairwise comparisons when applicable. Additionally, for each body composition variable, effect sizes (ESs) were calculated as the pretest–post-test change divided by the pretest standard deviation for RAM for each variable [21]. Data were reported as mean ± standard deviation and 95% confidence intervals (Cis), with alpha (α) set at p ≤ 0.05. An a priori power analysis was conducted using G*Power version 3.1.9.7 to determine the sample size needed to test the study hypothesis. To achieve 80% power for detecting a small effect (0.25), at a significance criterion of α = 0.05, the minimum sample size was n = 42. The sample size in this study of n = 23 resulted in this study achieving 50% power. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS statistical software (IBM SPSS Statistics v.28.0, Armonk, NY, USA).

3. Results

Twenty-three (n = 23) participants completed the requirements for this study and were included in the data analysis. Participants’ baseline descriptive characteristics are presented in Table 2. There were no significant differences between RAM, RAM + RT, and RAM + WH at baseline.

3.1. Changes in Body Mass, BMI, and Percent Body Fat

There was an overall effect for body mass (kg) from pre- to post-Ramadan (p = 0.033); however, there were no significant differences observed for RAM (−1%; ES = −0.08), RAM + RT (−1%; ES = −0.07), or RAM + WH (−1.3%; ES = 0.11). Additionally, there was no interactive (intervention × timepoint) effect observed for body mass (p = 0.881). There was no effect observed for BMI (kg/m2) from pre- to post-Ramadan (p = 0.138), with minimal changes in BMI observed for RAM (−2%; ES = −0.28), RAM + RT (−1.2%; ES = −0.16), and RAM + WH (0%; ES = 0.0). Additionally, there was no intervention x timepoint effect observed (p = 0.539). Similar to BMI, there was no effect observed for body fat (%) from pre- to post-Ramadan (p = 0.222), with increases in body fat seen for RAM + RT and RAM + WH (+1.2% for both groups; ES = 0.08). Additionally, there was no intervention x timepoint effect observed for body fat (p = 0.358). Data for body mass, BMI, and body fat from pre- to post-Ramadan are shown in Table 3.

3.2. Changes in Fat Mass and Lean Mass

There was no effect observed for fat mass (kg) from pre- to post-Ramadan (p = 0.325), with minimal changes in fat mass observed for all three groups (<1%; ES = −0.04–0.02). Additionally, there was no intervention x timepoint effect observed for fat mass (p = 0.360). There was an overall effect for lean mass (kg) from pre- to post-Ramadan (p = 0.013); however, there were no significant differences observed for RAM (−1%; ES = −0.1), RAM + RT (−1%; ES = −0.1), or RAM + WH (−2%; ES = −0.2). Additionally, there was no interactive effect observed for lean mass (p = 0.657). Data for fat mass and lean mass from pre- to post-Ramadan are shown in Table 4.

4. Discussion

The present study aimed to determine the effects of regular resistance training or daily supplementary protein intake through whey protein on body mass, BMI, body fat, fat mass, and lean mass in Muslim men observing Ramadan fasting. Body mass (kg) decreased overall in all three groups (p = 0.033; ∆post-Ramadan = −0.6–0.9 kg) though there were no differences between RAM, RAM + RT, and RAM + WH. Similarly, BMI (kg/m2) decreased for RAM and RAM + RT but remained unchanged in RAM + WH post-Ramadan, and these changes for RAM and RAM + RT were not significant. Prolonged caloric and fluid restriction throughout the daily fasting periods of Ramadan can create a substantial caloric deficit that can promote reductions in body mass, though these individuals are also able to eat ad libitum once the fasting periods have ended. However, prolonged caloric restriction, such as Ramadan fasting, can be accompanied by reductions in resting metabolic rate and non-exercise, spontaneous physical activity, which could dampen Ramadan fasting’s effects on reducing body mass and BMI [4,22]. Considering that the RAM + RT group performed resistance exercises multiple times a week, potentiating their caloric deficit, it was anticipated that this group would experience larger reductions in body mass and BMI; however, this was not observed. This could be attributed to compensatory caloric intake in response to the exercise sessions during their feeding periods, or changes in their metabolism (metabolic rate) to preserve their body mass [4,23]. Most studies that have investigated Ramadan fasting tend to report reductions in body mass and BMI [4,24,25,26,27]. These reductions appear to be modest in many of these studies (2–8%); however, in some studies, reductions in body mass and BMI are not observed at all [28]. The modest decreases we observed in this study for body mass (≤1.3%) and BMI (≤2%) are in line with these previous studies [4,24,25,26,27,28]. The magnitude by which body mass and BMI can be affected by Ramadan fasting is likely dependent on an individual’s baseline for both variables, with higher body mass and BMI prior to the initiation of Ramadan fasting permitting greater ranges for these variables to be reduced over several weeks [4]. Mean body mass for RAM (~13%) and RAM + RT (~16%) was higher at baseline compared to RAM + WH, though this did not translate to greater changes in body mass or BMI. Collectively, we theorize that the participants in this study likely compensated for their caloric and fluid deficits in their feeding periods once Ramadan fasting concluded each day, limiting changes to body mass and BMI. Additionally, given that both body mass and BMI are highly sensitive to an individual’s dietary intake (quantity and quality), it is also possible that participants’ dietary intakes the evening prior to the second dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scan could have influenced observations for body mass and BMI [29]. Dietary food records were not collected in this study, so both explanations can only be speculated. Despite all of this, it is possible that had the sample sizes been larger for all three groups, the changes in body mass and BMI may have been significant. Future investigations of this topic (fasting throughout Ramadan) may consider including measurements at the mid-point (~two weeks in) in addition to pre- and post-measurements to determine if body mass and BMI are affected at specific timeframes throughout Ramadan.
Similar to body mass and BMI, body fat (%) remained mostly unchanged from pre- to post-Ramadan for all three groups, with RAM + RT and RAM + WH experiencing modest increases (1.2%). Fat mass (kg) also remained mostly unchanged, with minimal changes (±<1%) observed for all three groups. This contrasts with previous studies showing improvements in body fat and fat mass in response to Ramadan fasting [30,31]. Although similar to the observations on body mass and BMI, several studies have also reported minimal to no change in body fat or fat mass [32,33]. The prolonged caloric restriction during Ramadan fasting can mobilize fatty acids from triglyceride stores in adipose tissue to support the energy needs during this period of time spent fasting each day [4,24,34]. Ramadan fasting can increase lipolytic hormones (glucagon) and can also disrupt the diurnal variation of cortisol, which could increase lipolysis and fatty acid mobilization further [4,35,36]. By increasing the mobilization of fatty acids from adipose tissue, these two metabolic effects of Ramadan fasting would be expected to cause reductions in fat mass, but again, this was not observed. As with body mass, the increase in body fat and maintenance of fat mass in RAM + RT could be due to a compensatory increase in caloric intake in response to resistance training [4,23]. This speculative compensation in caloric intake in the feeding periods is not limited to RAM + RT either, as many studies report caloric intake compensation simply when an individual is challenged by long-term caloric restriction [23,37,38]. Again, dietary intake was not measured in this study, so this explanation, though potentially plausible, cannot be confirmed.
As with body mass and BMI, the magnitude by which body fat and fat mass can be reduced in response to Ramadan fasting appears to be dependent on the pre-Ramadan fasting values for both, with higher body fat and fat mass permitting greater ranges by which these two variables can be reduced [5]. Pre-Ramadan body fat (%) and fat mass were noticeably larger, though not significantly different, in RAM compared to RAM + RT and RAM + WH. This lower baseline for body fat and fat mass in both RAM + RT and RAM + WH could have limited their capacity to change these variables, particularly for RAM + RT when taking into consideration that they coupled Ramadan fasting with weekly exercise. Our observations in body fat and fat mass for RAM, RAM + RT, and RAM + WH in comparison to other studies could also be attributed to differences in the methods used to measure body fat and fat mass between studies (DXA vs. skinfold vs. bioelectrical impedance) [4,5,30,31,32,33]. Body composition measures such as body fat and fat mass are sensitive to changes in nutritional and hydration status [39]. Considering individuals participating in Ramadan fasting abstain from food and fluid for ~11 h each day, this could have influenced body fat and fat mass measures. Additionally, the second DXA scan was performed within five days after the conclusion of Ramadan, meaning the participants would have returned to their normal dietary habits outside of Ramadan fasting leading up to this scan. This could have potentially influenced measurements during the second DXA scan; however, all scans were performed in a fasted state. Collectively, consistency in the methods used to assess changes in body composition as well as improvements in dietary control or recall are needed in future studies addressing how Ramadan fasting impacts body composition.
Lastly, lean mass (kg) decreased overall from pre- to post-Ramadan in all three groups, though there were no differences between RAM, RAM + RT, and RAM + WH. These decreases were modest (1–2%) and contrasted with our hypothesis that resistance training or whey protein would provide an advantage in preserving lean mass compared to RAM. This hypothesis is based on the body of evidence that resistance training can enable the preservation of body mass during sustained periods of caloric restriction [14,40]. Losses in lean or fat-free mass are reported in studies investigating the effects of Ramadan fasting on body composition, though these changes can be marginal or are not always observed [5,6,19]. Collectively, both resistance training and daily whey protein consumption failed to provide any advantage with respect to lean mass throughout Ramadan in this study. Our observations in lean mass for RAM + RT could be explained by several factors. The resistance training program’s duration was only four weeks long which was chosen to match the duration of Ramadan. Many studies that have observed positive changes in lean mass (e.g., muscle mass or hypertrophy) in response to resistance training have utilized longer training periods (6–8+ weeks), creating greater opportunities to promote and detect changes in lean mass accretion [41,42,43,44]. It seems probable that we may have observed greater preservation or accretion of lean mass for RAM + RT had the resistance training program been performed for a longer duration [45]. Additionally, the resistance training program variables (volume and loads with respect to volume) could have possibly influenced our observations in lean mass for RAM + RT. The resistance training program was designed based on evidence that higher-volume resistance training can support and increase muscle mass [44]. Despite this, we speculate that given the unique diurnal restrictions in food and fluid during Ramadan fasting, greater resistance training loads and/or volumes may be needed to promote preservation or increases in lean mass. Future studies combining resistance training with Ramadan fasting should consider higher training loads and volumes to clarify this speculation.
Similar to RAM + RT, our observations in lean mass for RAM + WH could be explained by several factors. Participants in RAM + WH consumed 30 g of whey protein to provide some baseline level of protein intake each day of Ramadan. However, this raises a few important points to consider. We did not measure dietary intake in this study; thus, we are unable to report on participants’ daily dietary protein intake. Current evidence indicates higher than normal (0.8–1.0 g/kg) dietary protein intakes are necessary in most individuals to preserve or increase lean mass when presented with a period of sustained caloric restriction [45,46,47]. Considering this, the 30 g of protein may have been insufficient to preserve lean mass for some participants in RAM + WH if their habitual protein intake was low [48]. It is possible that we may have observed differences in lean mass for RAM + WH had the protein dose been increased, or if participants had consumed protein at several points each day (pre-fast and post-fast [46,47,48].
An important limitation of this study was that no dietary intake or records were collected from participants in this study. Thus, participant dietary intake (beyond whey protein in RAM + WH) was not controlled for throughout this study’s duration. It is important to address this given that participants’ dietary intake could have influenced outcomes in this study. Second, it is evident that this study was underpowered given the sample size in this study. Challenges in recruiting a sufficient sample were attributed to the specificity of the sample population (Muslim men who observe Ramadan) in the study’s geographical area. Additional studies with larger sample sizes are needed to provide greater clarity on how resistance training or whey protein may preserve lean mass in individuals fasting throughout Ramadan. Third, given Ramadan’s duration (four weeks), it is possible that this relatively short duration was not long enough to detect significant changes in body mass or body composition. Last, the specificity of the sample population, as well as the specificity of Ramadan fasting (food and fluid restriction), create challenges when drawing comparisons from this study to the general population. However, this study does build upon methodologies used in previous studies investigating changes in body composition in response to Ramadan fasting.
A strength of this study was its use of DXA to assess changes in body composition with respect to previous studies. Moreover, many of these previous studies have not assessed how interventions such as resistance training or dietary protein can influence body mass and composition throughout Ramadan. Future studies should address how resistance training or protein consumption, including greater doses and/or distributed doses, can influence body mass and composition, as well as performance measures such as neuromuscular function or strength, in individuals observing Ramadan fasting, while also controlling for dietary intake prior to and throughout Ramadan.

5. Conclusions

To summarize, resistance training or whey protein did not provide any advantage for preserving lean mass in individuals participating in Ramadan fasting. Both resistance training and whey protein also provided no benefit on body weight, BMI, body fat percentage, or fat mass compared to Ramadan fasting alone. It is possible that, with methodological changes to the resistance training program (training intensity, volume, load, program duration, etc.) or the whey protein dosing (increased g/dose or multiple doses per day), these interventions could have preserved or promoted increases in lean mass. Future studies should address these three components to more clearly determine their ability to positively affect measures of body composition in individuals participating in Ramadan fasting.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.S.A. and R.A.G.; methodology, A.S.A. and R.A.G.; validation, R.A.G. and N.A.; formal analysis, R.A.G.; investigation, A.S.A., A.A. and R.A.G.; data curation, A.S.A., A.A. and R.A.G.; writing—original draft preparation, A.S.A., A.A. and R.A.G.; writing—review and editing, R.A.G., N.A. and M.L.S.; supervision, R.A.G., N.A., C.B. and M.L.S.; project administration, R.A.G., N.A. and M.L.S.; funding acquisition, A.S.A. and R.A.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by a Student Research Grant from the Central States Chapter of the American College of Sports Medicine (CSACSM).

Institutional Review Board Statement

This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board of Missouri State University for human participants (no. 258/02-21-2024).

Informed Consent Statement

Written informed consent was obtained from all subjects in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available upon request from the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank the participants of this study, Missouri State’s Department of Public Health and Sports Medicine for providing access to the Body Composition Lab, and Jackie Goodman and Whitney Sparkman for performing the DXA scans, as well as Titan Nutrition for providing the whey protein used in this study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Table 1. RAM + RT resistance training program.
Table 1. RAM + RT resistance training program.
Exercise SessionExercises
Session ALeg Press
Chest Press
Lat Pull Down
Leg Curl
Dumbbell Biceps Curl
Session BOverhead Press
Leg Curl
Machine Row
Dumbbell Lateral Raise
Triceps Pushdown
Exercise sessions were performed in a counter-balanced manner (e.g., week 1: A-B-A; week 2: B-A-B; week 3: A-B-A; week 4: B-A-B).
Table 2. Baseline descriptive statistics of participants.
Table 2. Baseline descriptive statistics of participants.
GroupAge (Years)Height (cm)Body Mass (kg)BMI (kg/m2)Body Fat (%)Fat Mass (kg)Lean Mass (kg)
RAM (n = 8)25 ± 4.7174 ± 6.978.3 ± 8.525.9 ± 1.830.1 ± 3.823.6 ± 4.751.8 ± 5.0
95% CI (27.5–32.7)(20.4–26.9)(48.4–55.3)
RAM + RT (n = 7)22 ± 1.8177 ± 6.880.2 ± 15.825.2 ± 3.523.7 ± 8.019.9 ± 9.557.3 ± 9.1
95% CI (17.7–29.6)(12.8–26.9)(50.5–64.1)
RAM + WH (n = 8)23 ± 2.5173 ± 6.668.8 ± 9.022.8 ± 2.724.7 ± 5.517.2 ± 5.249.1 ± 5.7
95% CI (20.9–28.5)(13.6–20.8)(45.1–53.1)
Data are presented as mean ± SD; n = 23; and 95% CI values for body fat, fat mass, and lean mass are depicted below the mean ± SD for each variable. RAM = Ramadan fasting; RAM + RT = Ramadan fasting with resistance training; and RAM + WH = Ramadan fasting with whey protein.
Table 3. Changes in body mass, BMI, and body fat.
Table 3. Changes in body mass, BMI, and body fat.
GroupPost-Ramadan Body Mass (kg) *∆Post-Ramadan Body Mass (kg)Post-Ramadan BMI (kg/m2)∆Post-Ramadan BMI (kg/m2)Post-Ramadan Body Fat (%)∆Post-Ramadan Body Fat (%)
RAM (n = 8)77.6 ± 7.5 −0.725.4 ± 1.5−0.530.0 ± 3.6−0.1
95% CI(72.3–82.8) (24.3–26.4) (27.5–32.4)
RAM + RT (n = 7)79.6 ± 14.7−0.6 24.9 ± 3.3−0.324.0 ± 7.7+0.3
95% CI(68.7–90.5) (22.5–27.3) (18.3–29.7)
RAM + WH (n = 8)67.9 ± 9.0−0.9 22.8 ± 2.8±0.025.0 ± 5.7+0.3
95% CI(61.7–74.1) (20.8–24.7) (21.1–29.0)
Data are presented as mean ± SD; n = 23; and 95% CI values for body mass, BMI, and body fat are depicted below the mean ± SD for each variable. RAM = Ramadan fasting; RAM + RT = Ramadan fasting with resistance training; and RAM + WH = Ramadan fasting with whey protein. * denotes a significant overall effect for body mass (kg) from pre- to post-Ramadan (p = 0.033).
Table 4. Changes in fat mass and lean mass.
Table 4. Changes in fat mass and lean mass.
GroupPost-Ramadan Fat Mass (kg)∆Post-Ramadan Fat Mass (kg)Post-Ramadan Lean Mass (kg) *∆Post-Ramadan Lean Mass (kg)
RAM (n = 8)23.4 ± 4.3−0.251.3 ± 4.2−0.5
95% CI(20.4–26.3) (48.4–54.2)
RAM + RT (n = 7)19.8 ± 8.9−0.156.8 ± 8.6−0.5
95% CI (13.2–26.5) (50.4–63.2)
RAM + WH (n = 8)17.3 ± 5.3+0.148.1 ± 5.7−1.0
95% CI (13.6–21.0) (44.2–52.0)
Data are presented as mean ± SD; n = 23; and 95% CI values for fat mass and lean mass are depicted below the mean ± SD for each variable. RAM = Ramadan fasting; RAM + RT = Ramadan fasting with resistance training; and RAM + WH = Ramadan fasting with whey protein. * denotes a significant overall effect for lean mass (kg) from pre- to post-Ramadan (p = 0.013).
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MDPI and ACS Style

Amjed, A.S.; Abdelhakiem, A.; Allen, N.; Brune, C.; Sokoloski, M.L.; Gordon, R.A. Resistance Training or Whey Protein as an Intervention to Preserve Lean Mass in Men Observing Ramadan. Physiologia 2024, 4, 404-413. https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia4040026

AMA Style

Amjed AS, Abdelhakiem A, Allen N, Brune C, Sokoloski ML, Gordon RA. Resistance Training or Whey Protein as an Intervention to Preserve Lean Mass in Men Observing Ramadan. Physiologia. 2024; 4(4):404-413. https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia4040026

Chicago/Turabian Style

Amjed, Ahmed S., Arwa Abdelhakiem, Natalie Allen, Cory Brune, Matthew L. Sokoloski, and Ryan A. Gordon. 2024. "Resistance Training or Whey Protein as an Intervention to Preserve Lean Mass in Men Observing Ramadan" Physiologia 4, no. 4: 404-413. https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia4040026

APA Style

Amjed, A. S., Abdelhakiem, A., Allen, N., Brune, C., Sokoloski, M. L., & Gordon, R. A. (2024). Resistance Training or Whey Protein as an Intervention to Preserve Lean Mass in Men Observing Ramadan. Physiologia, 4(4), 404-413. https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia4040026

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