Kindergarten Redshirting: Implications for Children with Disabilities
Abstract
:1. Introduction
How Many Kindergarteners “Redshirt”?
2. Method
3. Results
3.1. Prevalence, Predictors, and Parent Motivations
3.2. Impact on Student Academic Achievement and Post-Secondary Career
3.3. Impact on Social Skills and Behavior
4. Discussion
4.1. Limitations
4.2. Implications
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References and Notes
- Bassok, D.; Latham, S.; Rorem, A. Is kindergarten the new first grade? AERA Open 2016, 1, 1–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Donath, T.; Bates, A.; Al-Bataineh, A.; Al-Rub, M.A. Kindergarten postponed: Examining parents’ decisions and teacher opinions concerning school readiness. Int. Res. Early Child. Educ. 2010, 1, 21–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Graue, E.; Kroeger, J.; Brown, C. Living the ‘gift of time’. Contemp. Issues Early Child. 2002, 3, 338–353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Noel, A.M.; Newman, J. Why delay kindergarten entry? A qualitative study of mothers’ decisions. Early Educ. Dev. 2003, 14, 479–498. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wallace, J.B. Should Children Be Held Back for Kindergarten? Available online: https://www.wsj.com/articles/should-children-be-held-back-for-kindergarten-1410536168 (accessed on 12 September 2014).
- Hansen, M. To Redshirt or Not to Redshirt. Available online: https://www.usnews.com/opinion/articles/2016-06-16/how-much-does-it-benefit-a-child-to-delay-kindergarten-entry-for-a-year (accessed on 16 June 2016).
- Wong, A. Beyond the Pros and Cons of Redshirting. Available online: https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2015/08/beyond-the-pros-and-cons-of-redshirting/401159/ (accessed on 13 August 2015).
- Jackson, F.R. Outliers: The story of success. Multicult. Perspect. 2009, 11, 115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bedard, K.; Dhuey, E. The persistence of early childhood maturity: International evidence of long-run age effects. Q. J. Econ. 2006, 121, 1437–1472. [Google Scholar]
- National Association for the Education of Young Children. Available online: https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/PDFs/resources/position-statements/Readiness.pdf (accessed on 30 December 2020).
- National Association of School Psychologists. NASP Position Statement on Student Grade Retention and Social Promotion. Available online: https://www.nasponline.org/x26820.xml (accessed on 30 December 2020).
- National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education. STILL Unacceptable Trends in Kindergarten Entry and Placement. Available online: https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/PDFs/resources/position-statements/Psunacc.pdf (accessed on 30 December 2020).
- Frey, N. Retention, social promotion, and academic redshirting: What do we know and need to know? Remedial Spec. Educ. 2005, 26, 332–346. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Range, B.; Dougan, K.; Pijanowski, J. Rethinking grade retention and academic redshirting: Helping school administrators make sense of what works. Int. J. Educ. Leadersh. Prep. 2011, 6, 1–11. [Google Scholar]
- Stipek, D. At what age should children enter kindergarten? A question for policy makers and parents. Soc. Policy Rep. 2002, 16, 1–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- United States Census Bureau. Available online: https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/demo/tables/school-enrollment/time-series/cps-historical-time-series/tablea-3.xlsx (accessed on 30 December 2020).
- Warren, J.R.; Hoffman, E.; Andrew, M. Patterns and trends in grade retention rates in the United States, 1995–2010. Educ. Res. 2014, 43, 433–443. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- West, J.; Meek, A.; Hurst, D. Children Who Enter Kindergarten Late or Repeat Kindergarten: Their Characteristics and Later School Performance. Stats in Brief. Available online: https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2000/2000039.pdf (accessed on 30 December 2020).
- Snyder, T.D.; Dillow, S.A. Digest of Education Statistics 2012 (NCES 2014-015). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, US Department of Education. Available online: https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2014/2014015.pdf (accessed on 30 December 2020).
- Aud, S.; Wilkinson-Flicker, S.; Kristapovich, P.; Rathbun, A.; Wang, X.; Zhang, J. The Condition of Education 2013 (NCES 2013-037). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Available online: http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch (accessed on 30 December 2020).
- Bassok, D.; Reardon, S.F. “Academic redshirting” in kindergarten: Prevalence, patterns, and implications. Educ. Eval. Policy Anal. 2013, 35, 283–297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Graue, E.; DiPerna, J. Redshirting and early retention: Who gets the “Gift of Time” and what are its outcomes? Am. Educ. Res. J. 2000, 37, 509–534. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Greenburg, J.E.; Winsler, A. Delayed kindergarten entry among low-income, ethnically diverse children: Prevalence, predictors, and selection patterns. Early Child. Res. Q. 2020, 53, 496–506. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huang, F.L. Investigating the prevalence of academic redshirting using population-level data. AERA Open 2015, 1, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Fortner, C.K.; Jenkins, J.M. Is delayed school entry harmful for children with disabilities? Early Child. Res. Q. 2018, 44, 170–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Datar, A. Does delaying kindergarten entrance give children a head start? Econ. Educ. Rev. 2006, 25, 43–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barnard-Brak, L. Academic red-shirting among children with learning disabilities. Learn. Disabil. Contemp. J. 2008, 6, 43–54. [Google Scholar]
- Brak, L.B.; Stevens, T.; Albright, E. Academic red-shirting and academic achievement among students with ADHD. Contemp. Educ. Psychol. 2017, 50, 4–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Janus, M.; Kopechanski, L.; Cameron, R.; Hughes, D. In transition: Experiences of parents of children with special needs at school entry. Early Child. Educ. J. 2008, 35, 479–485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McIntyre, L.L.; Blacher, J.; Baker, B.L. The transition to school: Adaptation in young children with and without intellectual disability. J. Intellect. Disabil. 2006, 50, 349–361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pianta, R.C.; Kraft-Sayre, M. Successful Kindergarten Transition: Your Guide to Connecting Children, Families and Schools; Brookes Publishing: Baltimore, MD, USA, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Stormont, M.; Beckner, R.; Mitchell, B.; Richter, M. Supporting successful transition to kindergarten: General challenges and specific implications for students with problem behavior. Psychol. Sch. 2005, 42, 765–778. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Winsler, A.; Hutchinson, L.A.; DeFeyter, J.J.; Manfra, L.; Bleiker, C.; Hartman, S.C.; Levitt, J. Child, family, and childcare predictors of delayed school entry and kindergarten retention among linguistically and ethnically diverse children. Dev. Psychol. 2012, 48, 1299–1314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Fortner, C.K.; Jenkins, J.M. Kindergarten redshirting: Motivations and spillovers using census-level data. Early Child. Res. Q. 2017, 38, 44–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. The Science of Early Childhood Development: Closing the Gap Between What We Know and What We Do. Available online: http://www.developingchild.harvard.edu (accessed on 30 December 2020).
- Guralnick, M.J. Why early intervention works: A systems perspective. Infants Young Child. 2011, 24, 6–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Elder, T.E.; Lubotsky, D.H. Kindergarten entrance age and children’s achievement. J. Hum. Resour. 2009, 44, 641–683. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gottfried, M.; Le, V.; Datar, A. English language learners and kindergarten entry age: Achievement and social-emotional effects. J. Educ. Res. 2016, 109, 424–435. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lincove, J.A.; Painter, G. Does the age that children start kindergarten matter? Evidence of long-term educational and social outcomes. Educ. Eval. Policy Anal. 2006, 28, 153–179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mendez, L.M.R.; Kim, E.S.; Ferron, J.; Woods, B. Altering school progression through delayed entry or kindergarten retention: Propensity score analysis of long-term outcomes. J. Educ. Res. 2015, 108, 186–203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, 20 U.S.C. 70 § 6301 et seq. (2002).
- Crothers, L.M.; Schrieber, J.B.; Schmitt, A.J.; Bell, G.R.; Blasik, J.; Comstock, L.A.; Lipinski, J. A preliminary study of bully and victim behavior in old-for-grade students: Another potential hidden cost of grade retention or delayed school entry. J. Appl. Sch. Psychol. 2010, 26, 327–338. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- May, D.C.; Kundert, D.K.; Brent, D. Does delayed school entry reduce later grade retentions and use of special education services? Remedial Spec. Educ. 1995, 16, 288–294. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Malone, L.; West, J.; Flanagan, K.D.; Park, J. The Early Reading and Mathematics Achievement of Children Who Repeated Kindergarten or Who Began School a Year Late. United States Department of Education National Center for Educational Statistics. Available online: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED491697.pdf (accessed on 30 December 2020).
- Gough, D. Weight of evidence: A framework for the appraisal of the quality and relevance of evidence. Res. Pap. Educ. 2007, 22, 213–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alexander, K.L.; Entwistle, D.R.; Blyth, D.A.; McAdoo, H.P. Achievement in the first two years of school: Patterns and processes. Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev. 1988, 53, 1–157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cross, A.F.; Conn-Powers, M. A Working Paper: New Information about School Readiness. Indiana Institute on Disability & Community. Available online: https://www.iidc.indiana.edu/styles/iidc/defiles/ECC/WorkingPaperReadiness.pdf (accessed on 30 December 2020).
- Rimm-Kaufman, S.E.; Pianta, R.C. An ecological perspective on the transition to kindergarten: A theoretical framework to guide empirical research. J. Appl. Dev. Psychol. 2000, 21, 491–511. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Heckman, J.J. Skill formation and the economics of investing in disadvantaged children. Science 2006, 312, 1900–1902. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Crain, W. (Ed.) Gesell’s maturational theory. In Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications, 6th ed.; Pearson/Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle, NJ, USA, 2014; pp. 21–34. [Google Scholar]
- Carlton, M.P.; Winsler, A. School readiness: The need for a paradigm shift. Sch. Psychol. Rev. 1999, 28, 338–352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rous, B.; Hallam, R.A. Tools for Transition in Early Childhood; Brookes Publishing: Baltimore, MD, USA, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Rous, B.; Meyers, C.T.; Stricklin, S.B. Strategies for supporting transitions of young children with special needs and their families. J. Early Interv. 2007, 30, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Deming, D.; Dynarski, S. The lengthening of childhood. J. Econ. Perspect. 2008, 22, 71–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq. (2004).
- Sands, M.M.; Meadan, H. Transition to kindergarten for children with disabilities: Parent and kindergarten teacher perceptions and experiences. Under review.
- United States Department of Education. Early School Transitions and the Social Behavior of Children with Disabilities: Selected Findings from the Pre-Elementary Education Longitudinal Study. Available online: https://ies.ed.gov/ncser/pdf/20093016.pdf (accessed on 30 December 2020).
- United States Department of Education. Non-Regulatory Guidance: Early Learning in the Every Student Succeeds Act. 2016. Available online: https://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/essa/essaelguidance10202016.pdf (accessed on 30 December 2020).
Study | Data Source(s) | Measures | Inclusion of Children with Disabilities |
---|---|---|---|
Barnard-Brak (2008) | ECLS-K data collected in 1998–1999 for children with disabilities n = 968 | Item Response Theory (IRT)-scaled reading and mathematics test scores | Yes |
Barnard-Brak et al. (2017) | ECLS-K data collected in 1998–1999 for children with ADHD n = 21,409 total (ADHD sample = 1057; non-ADHD sample = 20,352) | IRT-scaled reading and mathematics test scores; parent survey of child’s use of medication and symptoms of inattention rating scale | Yes |
Bassok and Reardon (2013) | ECLS-B data collected in 2006 and 2007 ~n = 5550 | Direct assessment of school readiness (preliteracy, math, social development), primary care provider surveys regarding child behavior and basic skills | Did not exclude * |
Crothers et al. (2010) | Results of social behavior questionnaire completed by 16 public and private school teachers rating the behaviors of students in grades K-12. n = 281 | Social behavior questionnaire created for the study that asks teachers to rate child on four items related to constructs of bullying | Did not exclude * |
Datar (2006) | ECLS-K data collected in 1998–1999 from first time kindergarteners n = 13,818 | IRT-scaled reading and mathematics test scores | Yes |
Donath (2010) | Survey data from 63 parents who had redshirted their child and 24 teachers | Parents were asked to rank their opinion on reasons to delay kindergarten. Teachers were asked to rank their opinion based on their professional viewpoint about delaying kindergarten Entry | Did not exclude * |
Elder and Lubotsky (2009) | ECLS-K data collected in 1998 and NELS data collected in 1988 n = 14,333 | IRT-scaled reading and mathematics test scores; parent, student, and teacher surveys regarding child disabilities, achievement, and behavior | Yes |
Fortner and Jenkins (2017) | State administrative records from 2006/2007–2012/2013 school years n = 262,162 14.2% have disabilities | Enrollment data and entry to kindergarten dates | Yes |
Fortner and Jenkins (2018) | Same as above | Math and reading achievement scores on state end of grade exams in students’ third-grade year | Yes |
Gottfried et al. (2016) | ECLS-K data collected in 1998 for first time kindergarten students that indicated their primary language was not English or who received English as a second language instruction n = 1760 | IRT-scaled reading and mathematics test scores; oral language development scale scores; teacher social rating scale scores | Did not exclude * |
Graue and DiPerna (2000) | Reprsentative sample of data from school districts (n = 47) in one state. Data represented 8595 students. | Enrollment data and results of state Third-Grade Reading Test | Yes |
Graue et al. (2002) | Monthly observations in educational settings and interviews with five children who were potential redshirts, their parents, teacher, and school administrator | Did not exclude * | |
Huang (2015) | State administrative records from 2010/2011, 2011/2012, and 2012/2013. ~n = 80,000 | Enrollment data | Yes |
Lincove and Painter (2006) | NELS data collected in 1988 n = 25,000 | Reading and math achievement, educational history, school, parent, and student survey data related to student experiences | Did not exclude * |
Mendez et al. (2015) | Administrative data from one large, urban school district in Florida that was collected between 1989–2002 n = 6841 | Student information system data pertaining to student performance, enrollment, and surveys completed by students, parents, and teachers | Yes |
Noel and Newman (2003) | Interview data collected from 15 mothers of children who delayed kindergarten entry in the 1996–1997 school year | Did not exclude * | |
Winsler et al. (2012) | Data from Miami School Readiness Project (Winsler et al., 2008) from students who participated in 2002–2004 cohort. n = 14,813 | School readiness assessment results, school records, progress reports from teachers | Did not exclude * |
Theme | Study | Sample of Findings Related to Theme |
---|---|---|
Prevalence, predictors, or parent motivations for kindergarten redshirting | Bassok and Reardon (2013) | Male, white, and high-SES children are most likely to delay kindergarten. Results include a weak association between higher preliteracy and math scores and redshirting and no evidence that children with lower cognitive or social abilities at age 4 are more likely to redshirt. |
Donath (2010) | When provided with 28 possible reasons for delaying their child’s K entry, parents most often chose to “increase child’s self-confidence”, “child’s birthdate relative to September 1st cutoff date”, or “to protect child from struggling academically”. | |
Fortner and Jenkins (2017) | In the state of North Carolina, students who are redshirted have almost two times the risk of being designated as having a disability. Parents are motivated to redshirt their child based on a) existing concerns with their child’s development, or b) a desire to have their child have an advantage in school. | |
Fortner and Jenkins (2018) | In the state of North Carolina, rates of redshirting for children with disabilities are higher than for those in the entire population and vary across disability type (3–11%). | |
Graue and DiPerna (2000) | Within the school districts sampled, 7% of all children enrolled in third grade during the 1995–1996 school year redshirted kindergarten. | |
Graue et al. (2002) | Authors conclude parents and teachers base their decisions to redshirt their child on a combination of child characteristics and social elements. | |
Huang (2015) | Redshirted students were more likely to be white males, not from low SES. Students with disabilities were more likely to be redshirted. Most redshirted students were born in the summer months. | |
Noel and Newman (2003) | Results indicate some mothers base their decisions to redshirt their child-on-child characteristics or experiences and others on their personal philosophies of schooling and development. | |
Winsler et al. (2012) | Delayed kindergarten entry was more likely among boys, native English speakers, those with poorer school readiness, and who attended childcare rather than public school pre-K. | |
The impact on academic achievement and post-secondary outcomes | Barnard-Brak (2008) | Results indicate delayed entry to K had no significant difference on academic achievement for children with disabilities across a six-year timespan. |
Barnard-Brak et al. (2017) | Study results indicate the relationship between redshirting and growth rate in reading achievement of children with ADHD was non-statistically significant. However, a relationship between redshirting and decreased rate of growth in math was observed. | |
Datar (2006) | Data suggest children with disabilities benefit from delaying K in terms of fall to spring test score gains in reading and math. | |
Elder and Lubotsky (2009) | Findings imply voluntary delayed entry is related to a later diagnosis of disability. Additionally, being a year older was found to reduce the probability of being diagnosed with ADD/ADHD. | |
Fortner and Jenkins (2017) | Students with disabilities that are redshirted score statistically significantly lower on math assessment compared to non-redshirted peers. | |
Fortner and Jenkins (2018) | Children with disabilities who redshirt have lower third grade achievement scores when compared to others with similar disabilities who entered K on time. However, children with speech-language impairments that redshirted K demonstrated higher math and reading achievement when compared to others with a similar disability who entered K on time. | |
Gottfried et al. (2016) | Authors found children who redshirted K and were also ELLs did demonstrate higher reading and math achievement on tests initially, but the positive effects diminished over time. | |
Graue and DiPerna (2000) | Test results for students who were redshirted are comparable to the results for children who were not redshirted. | |
Lincove and Painter (2006) | Authors found redshirting to have little effect on long-term academic or social success and no effect on behavioral outcomes. | |
Mendez et al. (2015) | Long-term outcomes for delayed entry students were similar to those who did not delay entry. However, students who had delayed entry were more likely to be placed in special education later in their academic career. | |
The impact on student behavior | Crothers et al. (2010) | Old-for-grade students were rated by teachers as being more likely to engage in relational, verbal, and physical bullying when compared to younger peers. |
Gottfried et al. (2016) | There was no difference in problem behaviors used by older or younger ELLs. Nevertheless, older ELLs were more determined to be more socially competent in the areas of approaches to learning, self-control, and interpersonal skills. | |
Lincove and Painter (2006) | Redshirting results in few or no long-term social or behavioral advantages for students. | |
Mendez et al. (2015) | Students who delayed entry did demonstrate more positive behavior and social outcomes when compared to retained students. |
Category | Implications |
---|---|
Practice | Schools should examine school readiness through both maturational and experiential viewpoints to ensure consideration of all potential implications for children with disabilities. |
Schools need to establish opportunities for caregivers and staff to meet and discuss their perceptions of school readiness and the current research findings on academic redshirting and the potential outcomes for individual children with disabilities. | |
Research | Additional investigation is needed into the rate of prevalence of academic redshirting for children with disabilities and the number of children with identified disabilities who are redshirted. |
Research is needed to further describe if and how academic redshirting may be used to support children with disabilities’ placement in kindergarten, and how decisions related to placement are made. | |
Further evaluation of the communication and collaboration that occurs as part of the transition to kindergarten for children with disabilities is necessary. | |
Policy | Policymakers need to consider impact of school readiness standards and school entry policies on diverse learner populations. |
Policies are needed to formalize the transition to kindergarten process in ways that support all children’s school readiness. |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Sands, M.M.; Monda-Amaya, L.; Meadan, H. Kindergarten Redshirting: Implications for Children with Disabilities. Disabilities 2021, 1, 30-46. https://doi.org/10.3390/disabilities1010003
Sands MM, Monda-Amaya L, Meadan H. Kindergarten Redshirting: Implications for Children with Disabilities. Disabilities. 2021; 1(1):30-46. https://doi.org/10.3390/disabilities1010003
Chicago/Turabian StyleSands, Michelle M., Lisa Monda-Amaya, and Hedda Meadan. 2021. "Kindergarten Redshirting: Implications for Children with Disabilities" Disabilities 1, no. 1: 30-46. https://doi.org/10.3390/disabilities1010003
APA StyleSands, M. M., Monda-Amaya, L., & Meadan, H. (2021). Kindergarten Redshirting: Implications for Children with Disabilities. Disabilities, 1(1), 30-46. https://doi.org/10.3390/disabilities1010003