Environmental Representation on Australian Children’s Television: An Analysis of Conservation Messages and Nature Portrayals

Abstract

The early connection children form with nature is vital in fostering positive attitudes towards the environment. Television plays a significant role in shaping these attitudes, yet the inclusion of environmental messaging in children’s programs remains unexplored. This study investigates the extent of conservation messages and nature portrayals on Australian free-to-air children’s television. A mixed-methods approach was employed, analysing all programs airing on ABC Kids, a network aimed at children aged two to six years old, over a seven-day period. Phase 1 involved summarising program descriptions, types, styles, moral themes, and durations. Phase 2 entailed viewing all episodes and noting environmental representations, which were then analysed using content analysis. Only 14.3% of programs (10/70), representing 10.3% of airtime (481/4652 min), included an ‘Environmental Experiences’ moral theme. Content analysis revealed six distinct themes in environmental representations, with more positive than negative messages. These messages were predominantly implicit, conveyed through character dialogue and imagery. Environmental moments represented a balance of flora and fauna but were largely not fact-based. This study suggests a need for increased airtime for environmentally focused programs and more consideration of current environmental issues. Producers are encouraged to include more positive environmental morals and align themes with children’s learning styles to enhance their connection to and understanding of environmental issues.

1. Introduction

Humans and nature (hereafter interchangeable with ‘environment’) share an intrinsic connection that, when nurtured from infancy, can lead to significant environmental benefits [1]. Connection to nature can be defined as a psychological relationship between humans and the natural world, characterised by an acknowledgment of human–environment codependence and a developed sense of empathy toward nature [2]. The theory of Biophilia, as posed by Wilson [3], argues that this connection is innate and can explain the relatedness a human may feel when immersing oneself in their natural environment. This connection may present itself in a variety of ways and can be experienced through both positive and negative emotions [4]. Applying this idea to children’s psychological development can encourage attitudes and behaviours that contribute to a healthier environment [5,6,7]. It has been shown that developing a child’s connection to, and knowledge around, their natural environment will help begin a positive cycle contributing to long-term environmental health and sustainability [1,2,3,7,8,9]. This connection is particularly crucial in the face of ongoing environmental decline, a global concern highlighted by numerous studies [10,11,12,13].

The modern world’s technological focus has been associated with a diminished appreciation for wildlife, potentially contributing to climate change and species extinction [14,15,16]. The shifting baseline syndrome theory suggests that today’s children may experience a form of environmental amnesia, unable to recognise the extent of environmental decline over time [14]. This lack of awareness may obscure the importance of environmental preservation for younger generations. Consequently, there is a critical need for education and initiatives that encourage children to learn about and engage with the natural world, fostering an understanding of environmental changes and the necessity of conservation efforts.

The nurturing of children’s environmental awareness and experiences is increasingly overshadowed by technology-based trends, with screen time often replacing time spent in nature [17]. However, technology should not be viewed as an adversary but rather as an adaptive response to the growing inaccessibility of natural environments [18]. Factors contributing to this inaccessibility include suburban traffic, parental concerns about ‘stranger danger’, and, more recently, the COVID-19 pandemic [19]. In this context, indirect experiences of nature through digital media may serve as a catalyst, sparking curiosity and motivation for real-life environmental engagement [20,21]. While imposing direct nature experiences on today’s children may be impractical, leveraging familiar technological devices to construct virtual environmental experiences could be an effective strategy to overcome barriers to accessibility [21].

To develop an intentional approach to creating sustainability-minded individuals, it is crucial to first examine how children are spending their time with technology [9]. In Australia, a significant portion of children’s leisure time involves screen use, with television viewing being the predominant activity [22]. Television ownership is nearly universal across all socio-economic groups, with less than 1% of Australian children living in households without a TV [22]. The data reveal substantial television consumption among young children. Children as young as three watch an average of 113 min of television on weekdays. For children aged four to five, this increases to about 126 min per weekday. Weekend viewing habits remain consistent, with 90% of weekday viewers maintaining similar consumption levels [22]. Given this extensive engagement with television (but also other devices such as tablets and smartphones), incorporating environmental content into this medium could effectively address the current lack of direct environmental experiences among children.

Theories by Bandura [23] and Erikson [24] offer valuable insights into how children learn about their environment, providing guidance for presenting ecological content in current media [25]. Bandura’s social learning theory [23] suggests that children develop pro-environmental behaviours not only through direct nature experiences but also by observing others interacting with the environment. This is particularly relevant for environmental education, as children can learn about conservation practices, recycling habits, or wildlife protection by watching characters model these behaviours on screen. Complementing this, Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development [24] indicate that children aged three to five enter the ‘initiative vs. guilt’ stage. During this stage, children begin to plan activities, make decisions, and set goals independently. If supported, they develop initiative and confidence in their ability to impact their world; if discouraged, they may develop guilt about their actions and desires. In an environmental context, this stage is crucial for developing a sense of agency in caring for nature, as children can begin to understand their capacity to make positive environmental choices and take action to protect the environment.

These theories suggest that children learn about environmental stewardship by observing others, developing intuition about ecological responsibility. Bandura [23] emphasises the impact of observed behaviours, while Erikson [24] identifies ages three to five as an optimal period for instilling environmental values. Given children’s substantial television viewing habits during this age in terms of both time spent and program preferences [26], television could serve as a significant medium for children’s exposure to environmental concepts and values.

Successful applications of these learning theories in children’s environmental television programming include shows like Dora the Explorer, where the protagonist models respect for nature and wildlife, and Octonauts, which teaches marine conservation through adventure storylines. Paw Patrol: Mighty Pups Save Adventure Bay incorporates environmental themes by having characters clean up litter and protect wildlife. These programs demonstrate how television can encourage children to explore their environment and foster motivation for constructive ecological change by presenting relatable characters who model positive environmental behaviours.

Digital media has demonstrated its capacity to positively influence audience attitudes towards the environment across various formats. Documentaries [27,28], films [29], gaming [30,31], and social media [32] have all shown potential in shaping environmental perspectives. Documentaries, with their informative approach, have been particularly effective in fostering a desire for social change and conservation efforts [28]. Social media platforms offer virtual environmental experiences, encouraging users to seek out nature-based opportunities they might otherwise overlook [33].

When focusing specifically on children, research indicates that exposure to environmental discussions correlates with increased ecologistic (concern for environmental systems) and moralistic (concern for the right and wrong treatment of the environment) attitudes toward nature [20,34]. Notably, prolonged exposure to children’s films and literature incorporating conservation ethics has been found to have a stronger influence on a child’s attitudes than a week-long camping experience [20].

However, current research in this area has primarily focused on digital media aimed at adults or film and literature for older children. Considering the learning theories of Bandura [23] and Erikson [24] discussed earlier, there is a critical need to examine environmental representation in media for children aged two to five years. This age group represents a significant gap in current studies, despite being at a crucial developmental stage for forming environmental attitudes and behaviours.

This exploratory study aimed to investigate the extent and content of environmental messaging in free-to-air television programming targeted at preschool-aged children. Specifically, it examines programs aired on an Australian free-to-air children’s television channel (ABC Kids, Australian Broadcasting Corporation, Sydney, Australia) for moments of environmental representation. These representations are defined as any mention, inclusion, or portrayal of the natural environment that may encourage children to connect with and/or learn about it, whether in a positive or negative manner. This study compiles these moments of representation to establish specific environmental themes present in children’s programming. The channel broadcasts children’s programming from 5 am to 7 pm daily, targeting an audience of two- to six-year-olds [35]. The findings from this study will contribute to our understanding of how early childhood media can shape environmental attitudes and potentially inform future strategies for incorporating effective environmental messaging in children’s programming.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Data Source

This study analysed programs broadcast on ABC Kids, a free-to-air television channel operated by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation [35]. ABC Kids was selected due to its significant viewership, with over two million weekly viewers and 58.5% of Australian children under four years old being active viewers, ensuring a representative sample [26]. A digital set-top box recorder (Fetch Box Mighty Gen 3 DVR model M616T, Beijing Yuxing Software Co., Ltd., Beijing, China) was employed to record all episodes aired over seven consecutive days, from 5:00 am on 1 October 2022 to 7:30 pm on 7 October 2022. This resulted in a dataset comprising 70 unique programs and 465 individual episodes (M = 6.6 episodes per program, range = 1–26). In total, 4652 min of television content was viewed, coded, and analysed.

This study did not require formal ethical approval as it did not involve human or non-human participants and relied solely on publicly available data. A formal exemption was granted by the CQUniversity Human Research Ethics Committee.

2.2. Research Design and Analysis

This study employed a mixed-methods approach, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative analyses conducted in two distinct phases. These are explained in the following sections.

2.2.1. Phase 1: Program Summary and Moral Theme

In Phase 1, we compiled programming information for all shows airing on ABC Kids during the seven-day study period. Initially, 87 programs were listed. Five were excluded for being part of the Puggles category (targeted at children under two years old, outside our demographic of interest) [35]. Twelve ‘filler programs’ (episodes less than two minutes in duration, serving as commercial replacements) were also excluded. This resulted in a final sample of 70 programs for Phase 1 analysis (see Supplemental Table S1 for a complete list).

We consulted the ABC television guide [36] to list all programs airing on ABC Kids during the period of recording. Additional information about each program, including the title, description, imagery, and episode duration, was gathered from the ABC Kids website (www.abc.net.au/abckids, accessed on 8 October 2022) and its associated iView platform (www.iview.abc.net.au, accessed on 8 October 2022) [35,37]. Based on this information, we categorised each program by type (fiction or non-fiction) and style (animation or live action) (see Supplementary Table S1).

Recognising the historical importance of moral themes in children’s media [38,39], we anticipated that ABC Kids programs would also incorporate specific morals. For this study, we define moral themes as core messages or principles that convey the standards of right and wrong behaviour and teach children valuable social and ethical lessons. Drawing from the literature on common morals in children’s literary and digital entertainment [38,39,40], we compiled a list of 13 moral themes (see

Table 1. Summary of moral themes in ABC Kids programming, including definitions, sources, and frequencies.

Moral	Definition	Source	Extent of Programs	Duration (min)	Fiction	Animated
Relationships	Programs that teach children about the value of social relationships and how to approach and engage with them.	[40]	17 (24%)	911	17 (100%)	15 (88%)
Environmental Experiences	Programs that place importance on understanding and connecting to naturally occurring phenomena.	[39]	10 (14%)	481	3 (30%)	6 (60%)
Belonging/Identity	Programs that demonstrate how to navigate a sense of self in the context of the outside world.	[41]	9 (13%)	488	9 (100%)	9 (100%)
Social/Cultural Involvement	Programs that emphasise the importance of one’s culture and society.	[41]	7 (10%)	640	7 (100%)	7 (100%)
General Life Skills	Programs that show children everyday skills such as tying shoe laces or tidying up.	[41]	6 (8%)	1153	5 (83%)	4 (66%)
Music	Programs that demonstrate the value of music in learning and entertaining.	[39]	4 (6%)	175	2 (50%)	3 (75%)
Literacy	Programs that demonstrate the enjoyment of reading and learning new words.	[39]	4 (6%)	184	3 (75%)	3 (75%)
Creativity	Programs that teach crafts and hands-on imaginative play.	[39]	4 (6%)	247	2 (50%)	2 (50%)
Safety	Programs that deliver messages on problem-solving and staying safe in a range of situations.	[39]	2 (3%)	195	2 (100%)	2 (100%)
Courage	Programs that encourage children to do things outside of their comfort zone.	[40]	2 (3%)	65	1 (50%)	1 (50%)
Numeracy	Programs that demonstrate the usefulness of numbers and mathematics.	[39]	2 (3%)	34	2 (100%)	2 (100%)
Entertainment	Programs that have no major purpose other than to entertain through narrative.	[40]	2 (3%)	69	2 (100%)	1 (50%)
Emotions and Feelings	Programs that show children how to recognise their feelings and how to express their feelings in a positive way.	[38]	1 (1%)	10	1 (100%)	0 (0%)

Note: For a full list of each program and the associated moral, see Supplementary Table S1.

). Each of the 70 programs was then assigned a single moral that best represented its overall message.

2.2.2. Phase 2: Analysis of Environmental Representations

In Phase 2, each episode was viewed in its entirety, and any moment of the episode that represented the environment was described in detail. For this study, ‘environmental representation’ was defined as any mention, inclusion, or depiction of wildlife or the natural environment that could potentially encourage the audience to connect with or learn about the topic, either positively or negatively.

Each episode was viewed in its entirety, and all instances of environmental representation were described in detail (limited to two sentences per instance). These representations were then categorised according to specific variables, designed in consideration of Bandura’s [23] social learning theory and Erikson’s [24] stages of psychosocial development. The variables were as follows:

• Implicit or Explicit: Whether the environmental message was overtly stated (explicit) or required reasoning to understand (implicit).
• Instructional or Modelling: Whether the representation was presented through verbal instruction or behavioural modelling.
• Dialogue, Imagery, or Written: The medium through which the representation was conveyed.
• Flora or Fauna: Whether the representation focused on plants, animals, or both.
• Factual Content: Noted as ‘yes’ when the information presented was based on scientific facts about wildlife behaviours or natural occurrences.
• Positive/Negative Framing: Whether the representation implied protection/love for the environment (positive) or potential harm (negative).

In cases where a single representation exhibited multiple characteristics, it was coded as ‘both’ for the relevant variables.

We conducted a thorough qualitative analysis using content analysis methodology to complement our quantitative approach. This method was chosen for its ability to effectively describe and draw meaningful inferences from large datasets [42]. We followed the pre-established content analysis method developed by Erlingsson and Brysiewicz [43] to guide our coding process. The process began with data collection, where detailed notes were taken on each moment of environmental representation across all programs and episodes. Each of these moments constituted a unit of analysis.

Initial coding involved identifying the specific environmental topic addressed in each moment and how it was presented. The lead author conducted the initial coding, after which the second author independently cross-checked the coded material. Any coding discrepancies were resolved through discussion between the researchers until consensus was reached. Based on the interpreted underlying meaning, we then developed and assigned themes to each moment of environmental representation. Working in a hierarchical manner, we connected specific moments of environmental representation to overarching themes [43]. This process allowed us to move from specific instances to broader themes, providing a comprehensive understanding of how environmental topics were represented across the sample. Through this analysis, we were able to identify recurring themes in environmental representation. These themes helped clarify the extent and nature of environmental content in the programs.

3. Results

3.1. Phase 1: Program Summaries and Moral Themes

Our analysis of the 70 programs aired on ABC Kids revealed a diverse range of moral themes. We identified 13 distinct moral categories across the programming (see Table 1). Of particular interest to this study were programs identified as having ‘Environmental Experiences’ as their primary moral theme.

Table 2. The details of all programs (n = 10) identified as having ‘Environmental Experiences’ as the primary moral.

Program	Description	Fiction (F)/ Non-Fiction (NF)	Animated (A)/Live Action (LA)	Run Time (min)
Andy’s Baby Animals	To survive in the wild, baby animals must learn the same skills as we do—how to climb, swim, play, and make friends. Each episode is themed around a different behaviour that baby animals have to learn.	NF	LA	10
Andy’s Safari Adventures	Andy works at Safari World, the biggest wildlife park on the planet, with boss, Mr. Hammond, and tech whiz Jen. When trouble strikes, Andy jets off in his safari-mobile to visit animals around the world in search of a solution.	F with NF facts	LA	13
Andy’s Wild Workouts	Get those little ones active with these energetic workouts inspired by the wonders of the natural world. Presenter Andy takes on his liveliest mission yet, showing children how to mimic the moves of creatures large and small.	NF	LA	6
Brave Bunnies	The Brave Bunnies dearly love their home and friends in Carrot Valley, but curious and courageous, the whole Bunny Family sets off on a road trip to explore. There is a friend to find and a new game to share in every episode!	F	A	7
Cookie Monster’s Foodie Truck	Cookie Monster and Gonger work in their food truck, fielding orders from children via video message. The monsters drive the truck to a specific location and learn about where certain foods originally come from.	F with NF facts	LA (puppets)	5
Dinosaur Train	Dinosaur Train is seen through the eyes of Buddy, a preschool-age Tyrannosaurus rex. Buddy was adopted by Mr. and Mrs. Pteranodon and brought to their nest to hatch at the same time as his siblings Tiny, Shiny, and Don.	F	A	12
Dirtgirlworld	Dirtgirlworld is a celebration of life outside, taking children to a world where the real and unreal collide. Dirtgirl grows awesome tomatoes, knows the names of clouds, drives a big orange tractor, and has a backyard full of friends.	F with NF facts	A	11
Octonauts	Octonauts follows a team of adventure heroes who dive into action whenever there is trouble under the sea. In a fleet of aquatic vehicles, they rescue amazing sea creatures, explore incredible new underwater worlds, and often save the day before returning safely to their home base, the Octopod.	F with NF facts	A	11
Ready, Jet, Go	Follow Sean, Sydney, and Jet Propulsion as they embark on great adventures, exploring the solar system and learning about space and science, but they are always back just in time for dinner!	F with NF facts	A	11
Thomas and Friends	Join Thomas with his carriages Annie and Clarabelle and friends James, Edward, and Percy as they travel the tracks on the Island of Sodor, under the direction of the Fat Controller.	F	A	10

provides a comprehensive list of these environmentally focused programs.

3.2. Phase 2: Environmental Representations

Phase 2 of our study aimed to quantify and characterise environmental representations across all programs. We identified a total of 734 moments of environmental representation across the 465 episodes analysed. On average, each episode contained 1.5 environmental moments, with a range from 0 to 14 moments per episode. The distribution of environmental representations varied significantly across programs. Notably, some programs such as Hoot Hoot Go!, Numberblocks, and Waffle The Wonder Dog featured no environmental representations, while others, like Dirtgirlworld, demonstrated a high concentration with 21 moments across just two episodes.

We analysed the frequency of environmental representations in the programs with the most airtime. Play School, with 475 min of airtime, included environmental representations in 42% of its episodes (n = 8). Sesame Street, airing for 350 min, had environmental content in 64% of its episodes (n = 9). Bananas In Pyjamas, with 168 min of airtime, featured environmental representations in 21% of its episodes (n = 3). Fireman Sam, broadcasting for 140 min, included environmental content in 71% of its episodes (n = 10). Peppa Pig, with 130 min of airtime, had environmental representations in 53% of its episodes (n = 14). Lastly, Hey Duggee, airing for 126 min, featured environmental content in 38% of its episodes (n = 7).

Similarly, we examined programs with the least airtime. Small Potatoes, despite only 3 min of airtime, included environmental representations in 100% of its episodes (n = 1). Olobob Top and Maurice’s Big Adventure, both with 10 min of airtime, featured environmental content in 50% of their episodes (n = 1 each). Hoot Hoot Go!, also with 10 min of airtime, had no environmental representations. Dirtgirlworld and Digby Dragon, both with 11 min of airtime, included environmental representations in 100% of their episodes (n = 2 and n = 1, respectively).

Several programs stood out for their substantial number of positive environmental representations. Andy’s Wild Workouts, Wolf Joe, Go Jetters, Dirtgirlworld, and Octonauts featured at least two positive environmental representations in over 70% of their episodes aired during the study period. This analysis reveals significant variability in the frequency and nature of environmental representations across ABC Kids programming, with some shows consistently incorporating environmental themes while others rarely or never address them.

Table 3. Distribution of environmental representation characteristics in ABC Kids programming.

Codes	Total
Implicit or Explicit
Implicit	514 (70%)
Explicit	220 (30%)
Instructional or Modelling
Instructional	89 (12%)
Modelling	543 (74%)
Both	102 (14%)
Dialogue, Imagery, or Written
Dialogue	44 (6%)
Imagery	160 (22%)
Written	2 (>1%)
Dialogue and imagery	528 (72%)
Dialogue and written	0 (0%)
Written and imagery	0 (0%)
Flora or Fauna
Flora	191 (26%)
Fauna	294 (40%)
Both	249 (34%)
Facts
Facts	206 (28%)
Not factual	528 (72%)
Positive or Negative
Positive	658 (89%)
Negative	76 (11%)

provides a detailed breakdown of the 734 environmental representations according to our coding scheme, offering insight into the nature and frequency of different types of environmental content across the programming.

Environmental Representation Themes

A content analysis of the 734 moments of environmental representation, following the method described by Erlingsson and Brysiewicz [43], yielded six distinct environmental themes. These themes are presented below in order of frequency.

The most prevalent theme, ‘Connection to Nature’, accounted for 230 (31%) of the environmental representations. This theme encompassed moments that directed viewers’ attention to naturally occurring elements. These representations encouraged viewers to focus on and engage with various aspects of the natural world.

The second most common theme, ‘Constructive Hope for the Future Environment’, was identified in 182 (25%) of the environmental representations. This theme included both implicit and explicit positive motivations for environmental conservation, as well as skills and strategies to protect or enhance environmental health.

‘Wildlife and Nature Education’ emerged as the third most frequent theme, present in 156 (22%) of the environmental representations. This theme encompassed moments that provided factual information about the environment, either through explicit dialogue or implicit depiction of natural processes.

Ninety-one (12%) of the environmental representations were categorised under the theme ‘Appreciating the Beauty of Nature’. These moments portrayed characters expressing positive attitudes toward the natural environment, highlighting the aesthetic value of wildlife and natural landscapes.

The theme ‘Destruction and Declination of Environmental Health’ was identified in 61 (8%) of the environmental representations. This theme encompassed moments depicting character behaviours or attitudes potentially harmful to the environment. All instances of this theme were coded as negative.

The least frequent theme, ‘Nature as Being Scary or Dangerous’, accounted for 13 (2%) of the environmental representations. This theme reflected moments where natural elements, particularly wildlife, were portrayed as undesirable or fear-inducing.

Table 4. A selection of moments of environmental representation from across all of the six identified themes. For details of coding description, refer to Phase 2 methods.

Theme	Television Program (Episode/Season)	Moment of Environmental Representation	Coding Description	Episode Title
Connection to Nature	Dirtgirlworld (52/1)	Dirtgirl and her friends are having a picnic in the garden with ants, snails, and grubs around them.	Implicit, fauna and fauna, no facts, modelling, imagery.	“Earth Day”
	Hey Duggee (35/3)	One of the characters is walking through a lavender field, expressing that it is making him relaxed.	Implicit, flora, fact that lavender is a relaxing scent, modelling, dialogue and imagery.	“The Senses Badge”
	Brave Bunnies (28/1)	The characters say, “it’s fun painting with leaves!” as they are creating a banner with leaf prints.	Explicit, flora, no facts, modelling, dialogue and imagery.	“A Birthday Banner”
	Ana Pumpkin (8/1)	Ana and her friends are playing in the park.	Implicit, flora, no facts, modelling, imagery.	“Uncle Buddy”
Constructive Hope for The Future	Daniel Tiger’s Neighbourhood (7/5)	Daniel and his father are going to the library to borrow a book rather than purchasing a new one from the store.	Implicit, neither flora nor fauna, no facts, modelling, dialogue and imagery.	“Daniel Waits with Dad”
	Remy And Boo (27/1)	Remy and Boo are helping a baby duckling to get back to its nest and mentioned that they should leave it alone to allow the mother duck to come back and find it.	Explicit, fauna, no facts, instructional and modelling, dialogue and imagery.	“Ducky Dilemma”
	Go Jetters (39/1)	The villain is driving his boat through the coral reef; the Go Jetters see that the oars are smashing the reef and work together to stop him.	Explicit, flora and fauna, no facts, modelling, dialogue and imagery.	“The Great Barrier Reef”
	Charlie and Lola (6/3)	Lola and her friends are riding bikes to the park instead of driving a car.	Implicit, flora and fauna, no facts, modelling, dialogue and imagery.	“Do Not Ever, Never Let Go”
Wildlife and Nature Education	Olobob Top (31/1)	One of the shells that the characters found on the beach ‘ran away’, and they discovered it was a hermit crab.	Implicit, fauna, fact showing how hermit crabs behave, modelling, dialogue and imagery.	“Crabs”
	Octonauts (17/1)	Learning that narwhals use their tusk (which is actually a large tooth) to break through ice under the ocean.	Explicit, fauna, fact on how narwhals behave, modelling, dialogue and imagery.	“The Octonauts and The Narwhal”
	Kiddets (40/1)	The characters explain how pollination helps more flowers reproduce.	Explicit, flora, fact on how flowers reproduce, modelling, dialogue and imagery.	“Honey to the Bee”
	Floogals (25/3)	One of the characters explains that mole paws are big so that they are like shovels for digging, and their nose is strong and helps it find its way because it is too dark to see anything underground.	Explicit, fauna, fact about moles, modelling, dialogue and imagery.	“Mole”
Appreciating the Beauty of Nature	Ben And Holly’s Little Kingdom (1/2)	The fairies and elves demonstrate having fun in the meadow—“I love playing in the meadow, I hope it never changes!”	Explicit, flora, no facts, modelling, dialogue and imagery.	“Giants in the Meadow”
	Sesame Street (4/52)	The monsters are creating an art museum; Abby paints a field of flowers.	Implicit, flora, no facts, modelling, imagery.	“Sesame Street Art Museum”
	Andy’s Safari Adventures (8/1)	Andy is excited to see how pufferfish create their nests because their nests are “beautiful”.	Explicit, fauna, fact about puffer fish nests, modelling, dialogue and imagery.	“Andy And the Pufferfish”
	The Wonder Gang (4/2)	Quest wants to have his binoculars fixed so that he can keep whale watching.	Explicit, fauna, no facts, modelling, dialogue.	“The Wonder Gang and The Whale Question”
Destruction and Declination of Environmental Health	Bob The Builder (1/2)	The trucks cleared a spare grassy park area in order to build an exhibition centre.	Implicit, flora and fauna, no facts, modelling, imagery.	“Pyramid Puzzle”
	School of Roars (37/1)	When a character is struggling to give away his toys, his mother explains he has to give them away in order to “make room for new toys”.	Explicit, neither flora nor fauna, no facts, instructional, dialogue.	“Teddy Monster”
	Fireman Sam (13/9)	In order to build a treehouse, the construction team is putting screws into the tree trunk.	Implicit, flora, no facts, modelling, imagery.	“Treehouse Trouble”
	Pfffirates (19/1)	Crabs and snails come toward Lilly and Pat when they are on the beach; they both bat them away.	Explicit, fauna, no facts, modelling, imagery.	“Downward Spfffiral”
Nature as Being Scary or Dangerous	Play School (2/2019)	The presenters are telling a story about different animals who want to cross a river but cannot because there is a ‘nasty’ crocodile who will not let them cross.	Implicit, fauna, no facts, modelling, dialogue and imagery.	“Same And Different: 2”
	PJ Masks (44/2)	The PJ Masks are fighting a set of villains who are wolves with pet moths.	Implicit, fauna, no facts, modelling, dialogue and imagery.	“The Lizard Theft”
	Peppa Pig (9/6)	Peppa becomes distressed at the sight of a slug and exclaims “slugs are yucky!”	Explicit, fauna, no facts, instructional and modelling, dialogue and imagery.	“Night Animals”

provides illustrative examples of all of the themes. Episodes that can be considered exemplars of pro-environmental themes are presented in Supplementary Table S2.

In addition to thematic categorisation, environmental representations were coded as either positive or negative. All instances of ‘Constructive Hope for the Future’ (n = 183) and ‘Appreciating the Beauty of Nature’ (n = 91) were coded as positive. Conversely, all representations themed as ‘Destruction and Declination of Environmental Health’ (n = 61) and ‘Nature as Being Scary or Dangerous’ (n = 13) were coded as negative. One representation each from the ‘Connection to Nature’ and ‘Wildlife and Nature Education’ themes were coded as negative, with the remainder being positive.

4. Discussion

Environmental representation in media has been credited with fostering connection and pro-environmental attitudes [20,28,33]. However, research specifically examining environmental representation in children’s television is limited. This study aimed to assess the exposure of Australian children aged two to six to environmental representation by analysing programs and episodes for moral lessons, as well as implicit and explicit environmental representations and themes.

Our analysis revealed that while ‘Environmental Experiences’ was the second most common moral theme among programs, it represented a small percentage of actual airtime. Programs like Dirtgirlworld demonstrated a balanced approach, combining fiction and non-fiction and animation and live action, which aligns with the learning theories of Bandura [23] and Erikson [24]. However, limited exposure to these programs potentially hinders the development of positive environmental attitudes in young viewers.

Phase 1 findings also highlighted a need for more child-relatable environmental content. McCormack et al. [29] suggest that relatable narratives are more effective in changing attitudes than mere factual information. Again, Dirtgirlworld was unique in presenting pro-environmental topics through stories, while other programs often lacked emphasis on human–environment interdependence.

Phase 2 allowed for a more nuanced analysis, revealing that most environmental representations were implicitly modelled through dialogue and imagery, portrayed fauna positively but non-factually, and lacked hopeful narratives. While these representations align with learning theories valuing positive message modelling [23,24], their extent and content required further examination through specific thematic analysis.

4.1. Themes of Environmental Representation

The predominant theme identified in our analysis was ‘Connection to Nature’, characterised by depictions of characters immersing themselves in their surrounding environment. This theme was ubiquitous across the sampled programs, with most featuring at least one instance of environmental representation through characters’ nature connections. These findings align with the existing literature that suggests environmental connections can foster positive attitudes and motivate individuals to further expand such connections [4,15]. Given that our study focused on programming targeted at young children, it is noteworthy that real-life barriers to environmental connection were often overlooked in favour of entertainment value. Characters typically had facile access to natural environments, enabling them to model this connection consistently. For instance, characters in the series Pip and Posy regularly accessed their local park within safe walking distance. While this portrayal may be beneficial from a modelling perspective, it is important to consider that the inability of some children to replicate these behaviours in their own lives may potentially diminish the strength of the connection being fostered [23,24]. This discrepancy highlights a potential area for improvement in conservation education through children’s media, suggesting a need for more diverse and realistic portrayals of nature connection that acknowledge various living situations and accessibility challenges.

The second most prevalent theme identified was ‘Constructive Hope for the Future’, encompassing moments where the environment was portrayed in a manner demonstrating potential for improvement. This theme’s prominence is particularly significant in the context of conservation education, as portrayals of hope have been shown to be more effective in cultivating positive attitudes toward environmental protection than attempts to invoke anxiety about the future [2,15]. While no instances were noted of content deliberately causing anxiety in children, our analysis suggests that the extent of hope portrayal could be further developed to maximise educational impact.

The potential of this theme to offer desirable outcomes in conservation education is supported by the current literature, including established learning theories and recent research [2,23,24]. Chawla [2] emphasises the importance of demonstrating the benefits of environmental action without focusing on degradation. While certain documentaries portraying environmental devastation have been found to evoke emotional motivation for change in adults, such negative messaging may induce distress in children that discourages action [15,28]. Consequently, messages offering hope and a vision of a possible future are more likely to encourage children’s participation in conservation behaviours [2].

Our qualitative analysis revealed that environmental representations portraying ‘Constructive Hope for the Future’ often failed to fully illustrate the positive outcomes of pro-environmental behaviour. For instance, in an episode of Peppa Pig (Season 9, Episode 45), characters express a desire to ‘save the planet’ by planting a tree. While this representation offers a hopeful message, it lacks an explicit depiction of the long-term benefits of this action. Drawing from social learning theory [23], we propose that the educational value of such content could be enhanced by including visual representations of positive outcomes, such as a time-lapse showing the planted tree’s growth and its contribution to wildlife habitat.

The theme of ‘Wildlife and Nature Education’ encompassed environmental representations that provided factual information about the natural world. Despite the apparent ease of incorporating educational content about the environment, this theme was only the third most prevalent in our analysis. This finding suggests an underutilisation of direct educational approaches in children’s programming, highlighting a potential area for improvement in conservation education efforts.

Our analysis revealed that while this theme contributes to knowledge development, the manner of its representation requires more nuanced consideration to effectively promote conservation values and behaviours. Aitchison et al. [27] argue that the mere presentation of environmental facts may not necessarily lead to the desired shifts in values or behaviours that are crucial for conservation efforts. To address this limitation, we propose that factual information should be strategically paired with meaningful context to encourage active reasoning among young viewers, a strategy supported by Kahn’s [5] work on environmental cognition.

An exemplary approach to this integration was observed in the program Andy’s Baby Animals. This series successfully combined an extensive range of factual information with emotive dialogue, potentially enhancing the impact of the educational content. For instance, in the first episode of the first season, the presenter exclaims, “Aren’t the elephants magnificent? African Elephants have the biggest ears in the world!”. This statement not only provides a factual tidbit about elephant anatomy but also imbues it with emotional significance by expressing admiration for the animals.

Environmental representations depicting characters expressing positive emotions toward nature were categorised under the theme ‘Appreciating the Beauty of Nature’. This theme aligns with the current literature on environmental psychology and conservation education. Clayton [4] and Kals et al. [6] suggest that children who develop positive emotional responses to the environment are more likely to cultivate personal values favouring environmental protection. Our analysis identified exemplars of this theme, such as in Wolf Joe (Season 1, Episode 30), where characters explicitly and repeatedly expressed their affection for the forest. These portrayals potentially serve a crucial role in conservation education by fostering emotional connections to nature. By modelling appreciation and love for natural environments, such representations may encourage young viewers to develop similar sentiments, potentially translating into pro-environmental attitudes and behaviours as they mature. Future research could explore the long-term impacts of exposure to these positive environmental portrayals on children’s conservation ethics and actions, providing valuable insights for both media creators and environmental educators seeking to nurture the next generation of conservation advocates.

Our analysis identified two themes with potentially negative implications for conservation education: ‘Destruction and Declination of Environmental Health’ and ‘Nature as Being Scary or Dangerous’. While these themes were associated with the least frequent environmental messages, their presence warrants critical examination. Drawing on Bandura’s [23] social learning theory, we posit that representations of environmental destruction, even when not explicit, could negatively influence children’s behaviours. Examples included characters choosing to drive rather than walk for short distances or engaging in resource wastage. The theme of ‘Nature as Being Scary or Dangerous’ raises complex considerations, Erikson’s [24] work suggests that portraying nature as frightening may discourage children’s connection to the natural world, potentially impeding the development of pro-environmental attitudes. However, this theme occasionally served a protective function, such as discouraging unsafe wildlife interactions. While the complete elimination of these themes may be unrealistic and sometimes undesirable, their presentation requires careful consideration in the context of conservation education. When included, these themes should ideally be framed as learning opportunities, coupling depictions of environmental issues with character-driven solutions or balancing safety messages with positive representations of nature. This approach could help mitigate potential negative impacts on children’s environmental attitudes while still addressing important safety concerns, ultimately supporting the goals of conservation education more effectively.

4.2. Prevalence and Implications of Positive and Negative Environmental Representations

Our analysis revealed a predominance of positive environmental representations over negative ones. Most negatively coded instances fell under the themes of ‘Destruction and Declination of Environmental Health’ or ‘Nature as Being Scary or Dangerous’. However, we observed exceptions to this trend, where moments categorised under typically positive themes such as ‘Connection to Nature’ and ‘Wildlife and Nature Education’ were coded negatively due to their content or framing.

For instance, in Pocoyo (Season 4, Episode 14), a scene themed as ‘Connection to Nature’ was coded negatively when characters became distracted by technology during a picnic, neglecting the natural surroundings. Similarly, in Peppa Pig (Season 9, Episode 44), a ‘Wildlife and Nature Education’ moment was coded negatively when Mummy Pig responded to Peppa’s inquiry about hill formation with “I don’t know”, missing an educational opportunity.

These examples illustrate potential pitfalls in environmental representation, where even ostensibly positive themes can be presented in ways that are counterproductive to fostering environmental awareness and appreciation. Chawla [2] suggests that negative representations could be leveraged for positive environmental outcomes if followed by constructive learning moments or expressions of hope. This approach could transform missed opportunities into valuable teaching experiences, potentially enhancing the educational impact of children’s programming on environmental issues.

Future content development should consider not only the themes presented but also their execution and context. By carefully crafting even challenging or potentially negative environmental content into constructive learning experiences, children’s media could more effectively contribute to developing positive environmental attitudes and behaviours in young audiences.

4.3. Limitations and Future Research

This study focused on ABC Kids, a channel with a large and diverse viewership accessible to the entire Australian population, targeting children aged two to six years. The channel’s broad reach underscores the significance of the messages conveyed. However, several limitations should be considered when interpreting our findings.

While our analysis included a full week of content for an accurate representation of environmental messages, this may not reflect actual viewer exposure. Factors such as individual viewing habits, time-of-day preferences, and the network’s program lineup changes could influence exposure patterns. Additionally, the advent of on-demand streaming services, including a free version of ABC Kids, allows for more viewer control over content selection and viewing time. Our coding method for moral themes may have underrepresented environmental lessons in programs with multiple moral themes. For instance, Wolf Joe was primarily coded for social and cultural morals but contained numerous environmentally focused episodes. Furthermore, while many of the analysed programs were international (particularly from the US and UK), extending the relevance of our findings beyond Australia, further research is needed to confirm cross-cultural applicability.

To address these limitations and expand upon our findings, we propose several directions for future research. Investigating the actual viewing preferences and habits of children would provide insights into popular shows and the level of exposure to environmental messages. Such research could examine whether young viewers recognise environmental messages and assess their impact on nature connection, attitudes, values, and knowledge. A study involving a random sample of families reporting their television viewing habits could improve generalisability. Interviews with ABC programming committee members could elucidate factors influencing programming decisions, particularly regarding environmental content. Engaging with content creators might offer insights into their consideration of environmental messaging in program development.

An additional avenue for future research lies in exploring the environmental impact of program production methods. Comparing the carbon footprint of live-action versus animated programs with environmental themes [27] could provide valuable information for sustainable content creation. These proposed studies would contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of children’s television’s role in environmental education and its potential impact on young viewers’ environmental attitudes and behaviours. Furthermore, they could offer valuable insights for content creators and broadcasters aiming to enhance the effectiveness of environmental messaging in children’s programming.

5. Conclusions

This study provides novel insights into the extent of environmental representation in children’s television programming. Our findings reveal limited programs with environmental themes and infrequent episodes containing explicit environmental representations. The manner in which the environment is portrayed could be substantially improved by incorporating established learning theories and emphasising content that can be effectively modelled by young audiences. In the context of Earth’s current environmental challenges, these findings underscore the need for content creators, broadcasters, and policymakers to reconsider the role of children’s television in shaping environmental awareness and attitudes. Our research supports a new wave of environmental studies that critically examine the impact of children’s media and its potential as a tool for environmental education. By leveraging television to deliver age-appropriate, theoretically grounded environmental content, there is an opportunity to cultivate a generation of environmentally conscious individuals. Future research should build upon these findings to develop evidence-based strategies for integrating effective environmental messaging into children’s programming, potentially contributing to long-term positive environmental outcomes.