Unheard and Unseen: A Systematic Literature Review of Emotional Abuse Among Indian Adolescents

Abstract

Background: Emotional abuse is both prevalent and underrecognized particularly in culturally complex settings like India. Adolescents, being in a critical developmental phase, are especially vulnerable to the long-lasting psychological effects of emotional abuse. This qualitative literature review aims to synthesize findings from primary studies that explore the lived experiences of emotional abuse among Indian adolescents and identify emerging patterns across sociocultural contexts. Method: Electronic databases, including DOAJ, Google Scholar, ProQuest, JSTOR, Pubmed, PsycNet, and SCOPUS, were searched for peer-reviewed articles published in English up to March 2025. Inclusion criteria comprised qualitative or mixed-methods research focusing on emotional abuse among adolescents aged 12–20 in Indian contexts. The Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) was used for quality assessment. Results: Five major thematic domains were identified across the included studies: (1) Family as a primary site of emotional abuse; (2) Gendered experiences of abuse; (3) Cultural normalization and silence; (4) Psychological and emotional consequences; and (5) Coping and resilience among adolescents. These themes reflect shared experiences of emotional abuse shaped by cultural, familial, and gender-based expectations. Conclusions: This review highlights the urgent need for increased awareness and culturally sensitive interventions addressing emotional abuse in Indian adolescents. The findings suggest that parents, educators, and policymakers must recognize emotionally harmful behaviors and implement prevention-oriented strategies, particularly through non-violent communication and adolescent mental health support frameworks.

1. Introduction

Adolescence is a critical developmental period marked by significant emotional, psychological, and social transformations [1]. During this time, individuals actively form self-identity, develop peer relationships, and cultivate emotional regulation skills. However, when exposed to adverse environments, particularly emotional abuse, these developmental processes can be severely disrupted. Emotional abuse is defined as a pattern of sustained verbal aggression, rejection, humiliation, intimidation, isolation, and emotional neglect [2,3]. Unlike physical or sexual abuse, emotional abuse is often invisible and insidious, yet its impact can be equally, if not more, damaging to an adolescent’s psychological well-being [4,5].

In India, emotional abuse is deeply rooted within cultural, parental, and familial structures, where authority and obedience are emphasized over emotional expression and autonomy. Traditional Indian families often operate within collectivist frameworks, where individual needs are subordinated to familial honor, obedience, and academic success [6]. Within this structure, emotionally abusive behaviors, such as public shaming, conditional affection, and verbal derogation, are often normalized as disciplinary tactics [7,8]. Parents and elders, viewed as unquestionable authority figures, may enforce harsh expectations without recognizing the emotional harm they cause.

Excessive parental control, constant comparisons with peers, criticism over academic performance, and rigid gender roles are common forms of emotional maltreatment. These are often justified as acts of love or moral guidance rather than abuse [9]. Adolescents who differ from expected behaviors, particularly girls who assert autonomy or boys who show vulnerability, are frequently subjected to ridicule or isolation. Cultural expectations that discourage emotional expression, especially in boys, reinforce silence and emotional suppression, further compounding the psychological toll [10,11].

The extended family system also plays an important role. In many Indian households, emotional abuse may stem not only from parents but also from grandparents, uncles, aunts, and older siblings, particularly in joint family settings. Emotional invalidation, preferential treatment, and expectations of perfection are reinforced by multiple family members, making it difficult for adolescents to find safe emotional spaces. This culturally sanctioned hierarchy suppresses dissent and emotional vulnerability, often resulting in adolescents internalizing blame for their distress [12,13,14].

Schools and educational institutions further contribute to emotional abuse. Teachers may use verbal humiliation, public scolding, or punitive comparisons as motivational tools, reinforcing the message that emotional pain is acceptable in the pursuit of academic success [15]. Adolescents who fail to meet expectations often face cumulative abuse across both home and school environments, leading to a sense of helplessness and emotional withdrawal [1]. Girls may be emotionally abused for perceived disobedience or social interactions, while boys may be shamed for perceived weakness or failure to meet masculine ideals [16,17].

Despite the prevalence of emotional abuse, it remains underreported and underrecognized in Indian research and policy discourse. The 2007 national survey conducted by the Ministry of Women and Child Development revealed that nearly 49% of children, including adolescents, had experienced emotional abuse, most often by parents; however, there remains a stark lack of qualitative inquiry into how these experiences unfold within culturally specific contexts. Most existing studies in the literature rely on quantitative approaches that do not capture the nuanced emotional and relational dynamics involved [10,13].

From a theoretical standpoint, this review draws upon Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, which emphasizes the interplay between adolescents and their sociocultural environments, including family, peers, and institutional contexts. It also includes resilience theory, recognizing how chronic emotional abuse can undermine adolescents’ capacity to develop coping mechanisms, self-worth, and emotional balance [5,18]. Furthermore, gender-sensitive and cultural–psychological perspectives [19] are essential in understanding the layered effects of emotional abuse in a society where obedience, reputation, and patriarchal norms dominate.

Given these realities, there is a pressing need to understand how emotional abuse is experienced, interpreted, and coped with by Indian adolescents from their own voices. This review aims to fill this gap by synthesizing qualitative research to highlight emerging patterns, lived experiences, and sociocultural influences on emotional abuse among Indian adolescents. It focuses on how abuse affects adolescents’ emotional regulation, identity formation, interpersonal trust, and psychological adjustment, thereby contributing to the limited body of culturally grounded adolescent mental health research in India.

2. Method

2.1. Study Design

This review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA 2020 guidelines for systematic reviews. A structured and comprehensive search was performed across seven electronic databases: DOAJ, Google Scholar, ProQuest, JSTOR, PubMed, PsycNet, and SCOPUS. Boolean operators and keyword combinations (e.g., “emotional abuse” AND “Indian adolescents” AND “qualitative”) were used to identify relevant studies published in English up to March 2025. Reference lists of included articles were also manually screened to identify additional eligible studies (snowballing method).

The screening process was conducted in two phases as title and abstract screening, followed by a full-text review by two independent reviewers. Discrepancies in inclusion were resolved through discussion until a consensus was reached. Although no interrater reliability coefficient was formally calculated, agreement was achieved in all final inclusion decisions.

Data extraction was guided by a piloted template to ensure consistency, and the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) was used for quality assessment. A PRISMA flow diagram (Figure 1) outlines the selection process, including numbers of records screened, excluded, and retained for synthesis.

2.2. Eligibility Criteria

Studies were eligible for inclusion in this review if they met the following conditions:

Focused specifically on emotional or psychological abuse experienced by Indian adolescents aged 12 to 20 years;

Employed qualitative or mixed-method designs, allowing for in-depth exploration of lived experiences;

Were published in peer-reviewed journals and written in English;

Included participants slightly beyond the adolescent age range (e.g., up to 25 or 30 years) only if the study provided retrospective reflections on adolescent experiences relevant to the review’s objectives.

Studies were excluded if they:

Did not explicitly examine emotional abuse as a distinct theme or focused solely on other forms of abuse such as physical or sexual abuse, or neglect;

Involved participants outside the defined adolescent age range without offering retrospective insight into adolescent experiences;

Were conducted outside the Indian context or lacked attention to Indian sociocultural dynamics.

2.3. Data Extraction and Analysis

A piloted data extraction form was used to systematically extract data from the eligible studies, which were reviewed independently and concurrently by two reviewers. The following details were extracted for each study: article title, name of the first author, year of publication, region or location where the study was conducted, language, study period, study design (qualitative or mixed-methods studies), participant demographics, sample size, age range, and recruitment methods. Additional extracted information included the nature of emotional abuse examined, data collection methods (e.g., interviews, focus groups, narrative accounts), and key thematic findings related to adolescents’ experiences. For mixed-methods studies, both qualitative themes and relevant quantitative studies used to complement qualitative findings were noted. Any discrepancies during the extraction process were resolved through discussion between the reviewers.

2.4. Quality Assessment

During the screening process, two independent reviewers (A.W. and N.F.) performed the quality assessment, which involved evaluating the risk of bias in the eligible studies. This process included examining each study’s methodological rigor; transparency in reporting; appropriateness of sampling methods; clarity of data collection and analysis procedures; and the extent to which findings were supported by direct quotes or evidence from participants. The reviewers used the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) checklist to guide their evaluation, ensuring that each study met minimum quality standards and minimized bias that could affect the trustworthiness of the thematic synthesis. Disagreements were resolved through discussion until a consensus was reached.

3. Results

3.1. Selection of Studies

Out of an initial 3214 records identified through database and manual searches, 1500 duplicates were removed. The remaining 1714 articles underwent title and abstract screening, of which 86 were reviewed in full. Ultimately, fifteen studies met all inclusion criteria and were included in this qualitative synthesis. These studies were published between 2014 and 2024 and spanned various regions of India, including both urban and semi-urban settings.

3.2. Descriptive Characteristics

The final 15 studies primarily involved qualitative and mixed-method research designs, focusing on an understanding of the lived experiences of emotional abuse among Indian adolescents. A detailed summary of the included studies, their methods, and key findings is presented in Table 1. Participants were mostly within the 12 to 20-year age range however, a few studies included young adults up to age 25, providing retrospective insights into late adolescence. A detailed summary of the included studies, their methods, participant characteristics, and key findings is presented in Table 1. This table provides an overview of the methodological approaches and research contexts that form the basis of the thematic synthesis Common data collection methods included in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, and open-ended survey instruments. Studies employed a variety of analysis approaches, such as thematic analysis and narrative inquiry, within broader qualitative or mixed-methods research frameworks. Sample sizes varied considerably, ranging from small cohorts of approximately 20 adolescents to larger populations exceeding 1000 participants.

These studies examined multiple dimensions of emotional abuse such as rejection, persistent criticism, humiliation, psychological control, and conditional affection. The abuse was situated in diverse contexts, including familial, educational, and peer relationships, reflecting a multidimensional and culturally embedded picture of maltreatment. Definitions of emotional abuse and outcome measures used across studies are outlined in Table 2. This table highlights the varying conceptualizations of emotional abuse and the psychological outcomes assessed, allowing for a more detailed understanding of how emotional maltreatment is operationalized in the Indian context.

3.3. Thematic Synthesis

These thematic categories, summarized in Table 3, were subsequently consolidated into five broader domains during the thematic synthesis to capture overlapping constructs and provide a more integrated understanding of adolescents’ experiences of emotional abuse within Indian sociocultural contexts. A thematic analysis of the 15 included studies revealed five interrelated themes that reflect the lived realities of emotional abuse among Indian adolescents. These themes highlight how cultural expectations, familial dynamics, and institutional silences shape the experience and internalization of emotional harm. The analysis draws upon family systems theory and cultural psychological frameworks (e.g., collectivism vs. individualism) to interpret how adolescents navigate emotionally abusive environments in India.

• Suppressed Emotionality and Internalized Blame

This combined theme captures how adolescents are discouraged from expressing negative emotions and, in turn, internalize responsibility for the abuse they endure. Across multiple studies, boys reported being shamed for showing vulnerability, while girls were criticized for being emotionally “too sensitive” or defiant [10,16]. These responses reflect collectivist family values that emphasize obedience, emotional restraint, and the avoidance of conflict [6].

Rather than viewing emotional suppression as a coping strategy alone, this pattern can be better understood through family systems theory, where emotional roles are hierarchically assigned, and children’s needs are often subordinated to the family’s reputation. Adolescents in such systems blame themselves for family conflict or academic underperformance, absorbing negative feedback as a reflection of personal failure [13,17].

2.

Culturally Patterned Gendered Abuse

Gender-specific expectations strongly shaped how emotional abuse was experienced Female adolescents were frequently subjected to shaming regarding appearance, behavior, and social autonomy, while males were emotionally punished for academic failure or emotional expression [10,20]. These patterns reflect patriarchal and honor-based cultural norms that reinforce rigid gender roles.

The reviewed studies showed that both genders were emotionally abused, but in different ways that reflected broader social ideals: girls were controlled through emotional invalidation, and boys through emotional silencing. The intersection of gender and cultural scripts resulted in adolescents learning to self-monitor, repress, or deny their emotional needs in order to conform.

3.

Authority-Legitimized Abuse in Families and Schools

Emotional abuse by parents, extended family members, and teachers was frequently rationalized as discipline or moral correction. Adolescents often lacked the vocabulary or social support to challenge this authority-based maltreatment [21,22]. Indian hierarchical structures, both familial and educational, function as gatekeepers of obedience, where dissent or emotional distress is either minimized or silenced.

From a systems perspective, these institutions function as enablers of emotional maltreatment, normalizing behaviors like public shaming, harsh comparison, and emotional coldness. Such authority-sanctioned abuse leads adolescents to distrust adult figures and avoid seeking support [9].

4.

Coping Through Withdrawal and Creative Expression

Many adolescents described coping strategies, such as emotional withdrawal, journaling, drawing, or forming close peer bonds, to manage emotional distress. Girls were more likely to engage in expressive coping, such as writing or music, while boys often adopted emotional numbness and silence [17,20].

These responses reflect a lack of institutional and familial validation, where adolescents turn inward or to peers rather than adults. While these coping strategies offer temporary relief, they may also lead to emotional avoidance, maladaptive regulation, or isolation if not accompanied by meaningful support [18,19].

5.

Invisibility and the Absence of Systemic Support

A recurring theme across the studies was the invisibility of emotional abuse within social institutions. Schools, clinics, and community systems often failed to identify or intervene in emotionally abusive environments [23,24].Adolescents felt ignored, misunderstood, or judged when they tried to express distress [25,26,27,28].

This lack of recognition stems from the non-physical nature of emotional abuse, which makes it difficult to detect and address within policy frameworks and mental health services [29]. The findings underscore the urgent need for culturally sensitive mental health training in Indian schools and community settings, where emotional abuse is still not widely acknowledged or acted upon.

Table 1. Summary of studies included in the review.

Study	Method	Sample Characteristics	Setting	Primary Research Question	Main Finding Related to Emotional Abuse
Kumar et al. (2023) [12]	SEM analysis, questionnaires	571 school students (Kerala)	Schools	How does emotional abuse affect students’ mental health, and what is the role of family environment?	Emotional abuse significantly predicted depression; family environment mediated this relationship.
Sriram and Vasudha (2023) [25]	Cross-sectional, online survey	90 young adults (18–25)	India	How do parental behaviors during adolescence relate to emotional competence and post-traumatic growth?	Emotional abuse was not significantly associated with emotional competence or PTG.
Kothapalli et al. (2023) [26]	Pre-post intervention study	461 health students	Colleges	What is the effect of an awareness intervention on emotional abuse-related symptoms?	Reported decrease in depression and anxiety post-intervention related to emotional abuse awareness.
Kaur et al. (2024) [17]	Mixed methods (survey and interview)	Individuals aged 16–30 in romantic relationships	Urban settings	How is emotional abuse manifested in Indian dating relationships?	Restrictive emotional control (e.g., gaslighting) was common and linked to anxiety and depression.
Daral et al. (2016) [21]	Cross-sectional school-based survey	1060 adolescent girls (13–19)	Schools (Delhi)	What is the prevalence of emotional abuse among adolescent girls and its determinants?	High prevalence of verbal/emotional abuse by mothers; linked to family conflict and education level.
Bhilwar et al. (2015) [27]	Stratified random sampling; questionnaires	936 college students	Colleges	What are the correlates of emotional abuse in Indian adolescents?	Verbal abuse and emotional humiliation (e.g., appearance shaming) were commonly reported.
Damodaran, Raphael and Paul (2014) [20]	MHI and CECA-Q2	211 undergraduate students	Colleges (Kerala)	What is the relationship between maternal psychological abuse and adolescent mental health?	Conditional affection and blame from mothers associated with poor mental health outcomes.
Pandey et al. (2020) [13]	JVQ, SDQ, clinical interviews	132 adolescents with child labor history	Urban community centers	What are the mental health risks of child labor, including emotional abuse?	Emotional abuse from employers/families contributed to psychiatric symptoms.
Trivedi et al. (2023) [22]	Mixed methods (ACE questionnaire + interviews)	600+ adults (PTSD-positive)	Clinics	How does childhood emotional abuse relate to adult trauma symptoms?	Emotional abuse linked to PTSD symptoms; abuse by teachers and parents identified.
Waseem et al. (2024) [16]	In-depth interviews, NVivo analysis	20 adolescents (13–19)	Urban schools (Aligarh)	What are the lived experiences of emotional abuse in Indian adolescents?	Gendered abuse, academic shaming, and colorism deeply impacted self-concept and coping.
Nesheen and Alam (2015) [9]	Thematic review	Adolescents (literature-based)	Literature	What parental behaviors contribute to adolescent aggression and low self-esteem?	Emotional abuse such as neglect and humiliation linked to aggression and low self-worth.
Kourti et al. (2021) [24]	Systematic review (32 studies)	Global sample (includes India)	Multinational	How did domestic violence, including emotional abuse, affect adolescents during COVID-19?	Caregiver verbal/emotional abuse increased during lockdown; led to distress and withdrawal.
Deepa K. Damodaran et al. (2014) [20]	Psychological abuse scale, MHI	200+ Indian youth (18–24)	Mixed settings	How prevalent is parental psychological abuse, and how does it affect mental health?	Parental emotional neglect and verbal aggression correlated with poor psychological wellbeing.
Alam and Nesheen (2015) [10]	Thematic analysis	Adolescents in urban and semi-urban India	Mixed	What is the impact of fear-based parenting and humiliation on adolescents?	Persistent comparison and fear-based discipline led to emotional instability and peer withdrawal.
Firdous and Alam (2019) [16]	Quantitative survey	School-going adolescents	Urban schools	How does authoritarian parenting relate to emotional outcomes in adolescents?	Emotional abuse tied to emotional regulation issues and poor adjustment.

Table 1. Summary of studies included in the review.

Study	Method	Sample Characteristics	Setting	Primary Research Question	Main Finding Related to Emotional Abuse
Kumar et al. (2023) [12]	SEM analysis, questionnaires	571 school students (Kerala)	Schools	How does emotional abuse affect students’ mental health, and what is the role of family environment?	Emotional abuse significantly predicted depression; family environment mediated this relationship.
Sriram and Vasudha (2023) [25]	Cross-sectional, online survey	90 young adults (18–25)	India	How do parental behaviors during adolescence relate to emotional competence and post-traumatic growth?	Emotional abuse was not significantly associated with emotional competence or PTG.
Kothapalli et al. (2023) [26]	Pre-post intervention study	461 health students	Colleges	What is the effect of an awareness intervention on emotional abuse-related symptoms?	Reported decrease in depression and anxiety post-intervention related to emotional abuse awareness.
Kaur et al. (2024) [17]	Mixed methods (survey and interview)	Individuals aged 16–30 in romantic relationships	Urban settings	How is emotional abuse manifested in Indian dating relationships?	Restrictive emotional control (e.g., gaslighting) was common and linked to anxiety and depression.
Daral et al. (2016) [21]	Cross-sectional school-based survey	1060 adolescent girls (13–19)	Schools (Delhi)	What is the prevalence of emotional abuse among adolescent girls and its determinants?	High prevalence of verbal/emotional abuse by mothers; linked to family conflict and education level.
Bhilwar et al. (2015) [27]	Stratified random sampling; questionnaires	936 college students	Colleges	What are the correlates of emotional abuse in Indian adolescents?	Verbal abuse and emotional humiliation (e.g., appearance shaming) were commonly reported.
Damodaran, Raphael and Paul (2014) [20]	MHI and CECA-Q2	211 undergraduate students	Colleges (Kerala)	What is the relationship between maternal psychological abuse and adolescent mental health?	Conditional affection and blame from mothers associated with poor mental health outcomes.
Pandey et al. (2020) [13]	JVQ, SDQ, clinical interviews	132 adolescents with child labor history	Urban community centers	What are the mental health risks of child labor, including emotional abuse?	Emotional abuse from employers/families contributed to psychiatric symptoms.
Trivedi et al. (2023) [22]	Mixed methods (ACE questionnaire + interviews)	600+ adults (PTSD-positive)	Clinics	How does childhood emotional abuse relate to adult trauma symptoms?	Emotional abuse linked to PTSD symptoms; abuse by teachers and parents identified.
Waseem et al. (2024) [16]	In-depth interviews, NVivo analysis	20 adolescents (13–19)	Urban schools (Aligarh)	What are the lived experiences of emotional abuse in Indian adolescents?	Gendered abuse, academic shaming, and colorism deeply impacted self-concept and coping.
Nesheen and Alam (2015) [9]	Thematic review	Adolescents (literature-based)	Literature	What parental behaviors contribute to adolescent aggression and low self-esteem?	Emotional abuse such as neglect and humiliation linked to aggression and low self-worth.
Kourti et al. (2021) [24]	Systematic review (32 studies)	Global sample (includes India)	Multinational	How did domestic violence, including emotional abuse, affect adolescents during COVID-19?	Caregiver verbal/emotional abuse increased during lockdown; led to distress and withdrawal.
Deepa K. Damodaran et al. (2014) [20]	Psychological abuse scale, MHI	200+ Indian youth (18–24)	Mixed settings	How prevalent is parental psychological abuse, and how does it affect mental health?	Parental emotional neglect and verbal aggression correlated with poor psychological wellbeing.
Alam and Nesheen (2015) [10]	Thematic analysis	Adolescents in urban and semi-urban India	Mixed	What is the impact of fear-based parenting and humiliation on adolescents?	Persistent comparison and fear-based discipline led to emotional instability and peer withdrawal.
Firdous and Alam (2019) [16]	Quantitative survey	School-going adolescents	Urban schools	How does authoritarian parenting relate to emotional outcomes in adolescents?	Emotional abuse tied to emotional regulation issues and poor adjustment.

Table 2. Operative definitions of emotional abuse and outcome measures.

Study	Definition of Emotional Abuse	Outcome Measures
Kumar et al. (2023) [12]	Emotional abuse defined as persistent criticism, verbal aggression, rejection	Depression, happiness index, family environment as mediator
Sriram and Vasudha (2023) [25]	Emotional abuse operationalized via retrospective self-report on parental behavior	Emotional competence, post-traumatic growth (PTG)
Kothapalli et al. (2023) [26]	Abuse included verbal insults, psychological pressure from caregivers	Depression and anxiety (pre-post intervention impact)
Kaur et al. (2024) [17]	Restrictive emotional control in romantic relationships (e.g., gaslighting, emotional manipulation)	Anxiety, depression, relationship satisfaction
Daral et al. (2016) [21]	Verbal abuse and emotional neglect from parents, especially mothers	Reported abuse frequency, parental conflict, education levels
Bhilwar et al. (2015) [27]	Mockery, derogatory comments about appearance or intelligence	Prevalence of verbal abuse, perceived emotional harm
Damodaran, Raphael and Paul (2014) [20]	Maternal psychological abuse, including conditional affection and blame	Mental Health Inventory (MHI), CECA-Q2
Pandey et al. (2020) [13]	Emotional abuse from employers and community (extra-familial)	Psychiatric symptoms, mental health risks (JVQ, SDQ)
Trivedi et al. (2023) [22]	Emotional abuse identified through ACE criteria; linked to PTSD	ACE scores, PTSD diagnosis, trauma history
Waseem et al. (2024) [16]	Gender-based abuse, academic shaming, and colorism-related insults	Distorted self-concept, coping strategies, resilience
Nesheen and Alam (2015) [9]	General emotional maltreatment including shaming and neglect	Aggression, suicidality, academic underperformance
Kourti et al. (2021) [24]	Verbal/emotional abuse during COVID-19 lockdowns by caregivers	Exposure to domestic violence, reporting rates, invisibility
Deepa K. Damodaran et al. (2014) [20]	Parental verbal aggression and emotional neglect	Poor mental health outcomes via standardized inventories
Alam and Nesheen (2015) [10]	Persistent humiliation, comparison, fear-based parenting	Emotional instability, peer withdrawal, self-worth
Firdous and Alam (2019) [16]	Authoritarian parenting involving rejection and shaming	Adolescent adjustment, emotional regulation difficulties

Table 2. Operative definitions of emotional abuse and outcome measures.

Study	Definition of Emotional Abuse	Outcome Measures
Kumar et al. (2023) [12]	Emotional abuse defined as persistent criticism, verbal aggression, rejection	Depression, happiness index, family environment as mediator
Sriram and Vasudha (2023) [25]	Emotional abuse operationalized via retrospective self-report on parental behavior	Emotional competence, post-traumatic growth (PTG)
Kothapalli et al. (2023) [26]	Abuse included verbal insults, psychological pressure from caregivers	Depression and anxiety (pre-post intervention impact)
Kaur et al. (2024) [17]	Restrictive emotional control in romantic relationships (e.g., gaslighting, emotional manipulation)	Anxiety, depression, relationship satisfaction
Daral et al. (2016) [21]	Verbal abuse and emotional neglect from parents, especially mothers	Reported abuse frequency, parental conflict, education levels
Bhilwar et al. (2015) [27]	Mockery, derogatory comments about appearance or intelligence	Prevalence of verbal abuse, perceived emotional harm
Damodaran, Raphael and Paul (2014) [20]	Maternal psychological abuse, including conditional affection and blame	Mental Health Inventory (MHI), CECA-Q2
Pandey et al. (2020) [13]	Emotional abuse from employers and community (extra-familial)	Psychiatric symptoms, mental health risks (JVQ, SDQ)
Trivedi et al. (2023) [22]	Emotional abuse identified through ACE criteria; linked to PTSD	ACE scores, PTSD diagnosis, trauma history
Waseem et al. (2024) [16]	Gender-based abuse, academic shaming, and colorism-related insults	Distorted self-concept, coping strategies, resilience
Nesheen and Alam (2015) [9]	General emotional maltreatment including shaming and neglect	Aggression, suicidality, academic underperformance
Kourti et al. (2021) [24]	Verbal/emotional abuse during COVID-19 lockdowns by caregivers	Exposure to domestic violence, reporting rates, invisibility
Deepa K. Damodaran et al. (2014) [20]	Parental verbal aggression and emotional neglect	Poor mental health outcomes via standardized inventories
Alam and Nesheen (2015) [10]	Persistent humiliation, comparison, fear-based parenting	Emotional instability, peer withdrawal, self-worth
Firdous and Alam (2019) [16]	Authoritarian parenting involving rejection and shaming	Adolescent adjustment, emotional regulation difficulties

Table 3. Critical findings including gender and cultural aspects.

Theme	Gendered Aspects	Cultural Influences	Supporting Studies
Suppressed Emotionality and Internalized Blame	Boys discouraged from showing vulnerability; girls mocked for emotional sensitivity and blamed for conflict	Emotional restraint and family honor prioritized over personal expression	Waseem et al. (2024), Kumar et al. (2023), Bhilwar et al. (2015) [12,16,27]
Culturally Patterned Gendered Abuse	Girls shamed for autonomy/appearance; boys punished for emotional expression	Patriarchal and honor-based norms reinforce emotional control	Kaur et al. (2024), Firdous and Alam (2019), Deepa K. Damodaran et al. (2014) [16,17,20]
Authority-Legitimized Abuse in Families and Schools	Both genders affected by rationalized abuse from elders and teachers	Hierarchical family and educational systems normalize verbal and emotional abuse	Trivedi et al. (2023), Daral et al. (2016), Nesheen and Alam (2015) [9,21,22]
Coping Through Withdrawal and Creative Expression	Girls journal or express through art; boys withdraw or numb emotions	Emotional expression is not supported within families or institutions	Waseem et al. (2024), Kaur et al. (2024), Damodaran, Raphael and Paul (2014) [16,17,20]
Invisibility and the Absence of Systemic Support	Both genders feel ignored; boys less likely to seek help	Emotional abuse rarely recognized or addressed in schools or clinics	Kourti et al. (2021), Sriram and Vasudha (2023), Kumar et al. (2023) [12,24,25]

Table 3. Critical findings including gender and cultural aspects.

Theme	Gendered Aspects	Cultural Influences	Supporting Studies
Suppressed Emotionality and Internalized Blame	Boys discouraged from showing vulnerability; girls mocked for emotional sensitivity and blamed for conflict	Emotional restraint and family honor prioritized over personal expression	Waseem et al. (2024), Kumar et al. (2023), Bhilwar et al. (2015) [12,16,27]
Culturally Patterned Gendered Abuse	Girls shamed for autonomy/appearance; boys punished for emotional expression	Patriarchal and honor-based norms reinforce emotional control	Kaur et al. (2024), Firdous and Alam (2019), Deepa K. Damodaran et al. (2014) [16,17,20]
Authority-Legitimized Abuse in Families and Schools	Both genders affected by rationalized abuse from elders and teachers	Hierarchical family and educational systems normalize verbal and emotional abuse	Trivedi et al. (2023), Daral et al. (2016), Nesheen and Alam (2015) [9,21,22]
Coping Through Withdrawal and Creative Expression	Girls journal or express through art; boys withdraw or numb emotions	Emotional expression is not supported within families or institutions	Waseem et al. (2024), Kaur et al. (2024), Damodaran, Raphael and Paul (2014) [16,17,20]
Invisibility and the Absence of Systemic Support	Both genders feel ignored; boys less likely to seek help	Emotional abuse rarely recognized or addressed in schools or clinics	Kourti et al. (2021), Sriram and Vasudha (2023), Kumar et al. (2023) [12,24,25]

4. Discussion

Drawing on the five synthesized thematic domains that suppressed emotionality and internalized blame, culturally patterned, gendered abuse, authority-legitimized maltreatment, coping through withdrawal and creative expression, and invisibility within institutional systems, this review reveals how emotional abuse among Indian adolescents is a widespread yet often overlooked phenomenon. The thematic framework (see Figure 2) illustrates the complex and interwoven nature of emotional abuse experienced by Indian adolescents. It reveals five overarching themes: Suppressed Emotionality and Internalized Blame, Culturally Patterned Gendered Abuse, Authority-Legitimized Abuse in Families and Schools, Coping Through Withdrawal and Creative Expression, and Invisibility and the Absence of Systemic Support. These themes emphasize how socio-cultural structures not only discourage emotional expression but also legitimize gender-specific abuse, often overlooked in institutional settings. These themes, derived from a thematic synthesis of fifteen qualitative studies, illustrate how cultural expectations, familial dynamics, and systemic silences deeply influence how emotional harm is experienced and interpreted. As mentioned in Table 3, gendered expectations and hierarchical social structures, within both families and schools, play a significant role in normalizing emotional abuse and silencing adolescent voices.

The findings of this review reveal that emotional abuse among Indian adolescents is a widespread yet often overlooked phenomenon, deeply engraved in cultural, familial, and institutional structures. Drawing on the thematic synthesis, the review illustrates how emotional suppression, internalized blame, gender norms, and authoritarian family and school environments contribute to adolescents’ psychological vulnerability. These experiences, although unique to the Indian sociocultural context, align with global findings that highlight emotional abuse as a significant predictor of long-term mental health issues, including anxiety, depression, and identity confusion [4,5].

A key insight is the normalization of emotionally abusive behaviors by authority figures, such as parents, teachers, and extended family members, who rationalize these actions as discipline. This aligns with family systems theory, which suggests that emotional dynamics within families often function to maintain homeostasis, even if that includes dysfunctional or harmful patterns [6]. The interplay of collectivist values and patriarchal norms exacerbates emotional control and silencing, especially for girls who are expected to conform to ideals of modesty and obedience [9,10,29].

The Indian context is characterized by widespread institutional silence surrounding emotional abuse; it is rarely acknowledged or addressed in educational or clinical settings, leaving adolescents with limited access to supportive interventions. This review emphasizes that adolescents do not merely suffer in silence but develop creative coping strategies. However, in the absence of validation and intervention, these strategies can also evolve into maladaptive behaviors or long-term psychological distress.

• Ecological Context of Emotional Abuse in Adolescence

The review’s findings underscore that the emotional abuse of Indian adolescents is not an isolated phenomenon of individual families, but rather a product of multi-layered social contexts. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory offers a useful lens, positing that adolescent development is shaped by interconnected environments ranging from immediate settings (family, peers, school) to broader cultural and institutional structures [30]. At the microsystem level, most emotional abuse occurs within adolescents’ closest relationships, notably the family. Parents emerge as primary perpetrators of emotional maltreatment [31], often through harsh criticism, humiliation, or coercive control framed as “discipline.” Such parent–child interactions are embedded in daily home life and can profoundly damage adolescents’ self-worth and mental health. Other microsystem agents, like teachers and coaches, may also contribute to, or buffer, emotional abuse. For instance, evidence from collectivist settings shows that teachers themselves sometimes engage in verbal aggression (e.g., public shaming or yelling) [32], compounding the abuse faced by adolescents. Conversely, supportive figures in the microsystem could potentially mitigate harm, although the review suggests that these protective buffers are scarce in many cases. Beyond direct interactions, the mesosystem—the interplay between an adolescent’s microsystems—further shapes their experience of emotional abuse. In India, a strong disconnect often exists between home and institutional responses; schools and community members may notice a youth’s emotional distress yet rarely intervene, implicitly reinforcing the family’s behavior. This lack of mesosystem support means that if multiple microsystems (family, school, peer group) tolerate or normalize psychological aggression, adolescents have no safe haven. For example, if a school implicitly accepts harsh disciplinary tactics or a peer group upholds the notion of strict parental authority, it can validate the abusive dynamics at home. The reviewed studies indicate that emotional abuse is often “unseen”—not because it is literally invisible, but because the links between adolescents’ various environments create a wall of silence and inaction around the victim. Widening the scope, exosystem factors play an indirect yet significant role in fostering emotional abuse. Parental stresses and community norms that do not directly involve the child can still infiltrate the family climate. Economic hardship and job-related stress, for instance, can heighten the frequency of verbal abuse by overburdened parents [32].

Social networks and extended family may also transmit child-rearing beliefs that prioritize obedience over emotional well-being, thus implicitly endorsing stricter (even punitive) parenting. In collectivist communities, neighbors or relatives might witness emotionally abusive interactions but consider them “family matters”, choosing not to interfere. This reflects how exosystem-level attitudes—such as community disapproval of outside intervention or a lack of child protection services—indirectly enable abuse. Furthermore, gaps in media and policy at the exosystem level are evident; public awareness campaigns and child welfare services in India have historically focused on physical abuse or sexual exploitation, with far less attention paid to emotional abuse. This negligence trickles down to the family setting as a tacit acceptance of psychological aggression as a normal part of parenting. The result is that adolescents endure emotional abuse with few external checks or support, caught in an exosystem that fails to reinforce their right to a life free of emotional violence. At the broadest level, the macrosystem—encompassing cultural values, norms, and laws—profoundly shapes both the prevalence of adolescent emotional abuse and the societal response to it. India’s cultural context, like many collectivist societies, emphasizes family harmony, respect for elders, and adherence to social hierarchy. These macrosystem values can inadvertently normalize emotionally abusive practices. Parents in such contexts often view strict control, scolding, and shaming as legitimate tools to enforce discipline and uphold family honor. Indeed, behaviors that Western definitions would classify as emotional abuse may be considered acceptable or even laudable parenting in the Indian cultural milieu. For example, intense academic pressure, accompanied by verbal reprimands or comparisons, is commonly employed to push adolescents toward success; while psychologists might label this as emotional maltreatment, many Indian (and Asian) parents perceive it as responsible parenting [33].

The macrosystem also includes gender norms and patriarchal traditions that intersect with emotional abuse. In India, as in other South Asian and Middle Eastern cultures, sons and daughters are often treated unequally. Patriarchal macrosystem norms grant sons greater freedom while subjecting daughters to stricter control and scrutiny, which can manifest as gender-targeted emotional abuse. Parents (and extended family) may use tactics, like constant monitoring, guilt-inducing comments, or restrictions on girls’ behavior, in the name of protecting family honor. Research from Turkey exemplifies this dynamic: daughters are expected to show more obedience and dependency than sons, leading to more intense external control over girls [34].

The present review echoes this pattern in India, where adolescent girls frequently reported feeling devalued and constrained. Tellingly, in one large Indian survey, half of the adolescent girls wished they had been born boys, reflecting how deeply they internalize the preference for males and the emotional pain of being undervalued [35]. Such findings underscore that cultural patriarchal values are not abstract ideals but lived realities that can fuel emotionally abusive treatment (e.g., constant disparagement or neglect of girls). Finally, the legal and institutional frameworks—also part of the macrosystem—currently offer limited protection against emotional abuse in India. While the country has taken legislative steps to curb child sexual abuse, there is no dedicated law or clear enforcement addressing the emotional or psychological abuse of children. This legislative gap, combined with the societal stigma around discussing family problems, contributes to what can be described as an institutionalized silence on the issue. In summary, an ecological perspective reveals that emotional abuse among Indian adolescents is reinforced at multiple levels. Immediate family interactions, the lack of supportive bridges between home and community, external stresses and community attitudes, and overarching cultural norms all interlock to keep this form of maltreatment “unheard and unseen”.

• Cross-Cultural Parallels in Collectivist Societies

Situating the review’s insights in a broader context shows that India’s challenges with adolescent emotional abuse are mirrored in other collectivist cultures. Across many Asian and Middle Eastern societies, three common themes emerge: strong parental control, gender-based expectations, and a silence or inaction from institutions—all of which contribute to emotional abuse of young people in analogous ways. A comparison with East Asian cultures is particularly instructive. In countries like China and Japan, as in India, traditional parenting styles tend to be authoritarian and highly controlling, rooted in values of filial piety and academic achievement. Parents exert intense pressure on adolescents to excel, often using shame and criticism as motivators. From a Western standpoint, such behavior may be straightforwardly seen as emotional abuse; however, within the East Asian context, it is frequently normalized as a form of “tough love” or responsible parenting. Cross-cultural research confirms that Chinese parents have markedly higher thresholds for labeling behaviors as abusive or as requiring intervention compared to parents in more individualistic societies. In a recent study found that Chinese mothers were far more lenient than Dutch mothers in judging a range of harsh parenting behaviors as maltreatment [30]. This does not mean that Chinese (or Indian) parents care less for their children—rather, it reflects deeply ingrained cultural scripts that equate strict control with good parenting. Notably, even though authoritarian control is normative, it can coexist with parental warmth in collectivist contexts (i.e., a parent can be loving yet still verbally harsh). The implication is that many parents in collectivist societies may not recognize the harm in their actions, believing them to be benign discipline. Tragically, the adolescents at the receiving end still suffer the same psychological consequences (anxiety, depression, low self-esteem) that the literature associates with emotional abuse worldwide. Collectivist cultures also show strikingly similar gender norms that shape the contours of emotional abuse. In East Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East alike, patriarchal traditions impose stricter standards of behavior on girls, which in turn leads to gender-differentiated abuse. Parents tend to monitor and control daughters more heavily, circumscribing their social activities, enforcing modesty and obedience, and sometimes verbally berating them to enforce these norms. Our review highlights how Indian girls often experience emotional abuse in the form of constant criticism or restrictions, especially if they challenge gendered expectations (for instance, by speaking up or seeking independence). This phenomenon is not unique to India. Ethnographic and cross-cultural studies document that in many Arab families, as well as in conservative East Asian households, daughters face “emotional policing”; they may be shamed or guilt-tripped for perceived missteps that would be overlooked in sons. Such abuse might include derogatory comments (“bringing shame to the family”) or threats (“no one will marry you if you behave like this”), which are clearly emotionally damaging. Kagitçıbaşı’s research in Turkey (a society bridging the Middle East and Asia) found that parents impose significantly more obedience on girls than boys, [34] pattern that resonates with the Indian scenario. The toll of these gender norms is evident in qualitative reports from adolescents. Many Indian girls express a sense of powerlessness and resignation in the face of parental double standards, a finding tragically exemplified by girls who wish they were boys to escape such treatment [29]. Thus, across collectivist societies, gendered emotional abuse reflects a common macrosystem influence: the persistence of patriarchal values that sanction differential (and harsher) emotional treatment of female children.

Another thread connecting India with other collectivist settings is the institutional silence and societal inaction surrounding emotional abuse. In the Middle East, for example, studies indicate that the verbal and emotional abuse of children is rampant—between 70% and 80% of young people surveyed in some communities report regular verbal aggression from parents or teachers.

However, this high prevalence is met with relatively muted concern from authorities. Community leaders, schools, and even legal systems in many Middle Eastern and North African countries have historically failed to give emotional abuse “the weight that it deserves” [32]. Cultural notions of family honor and shame contribute to this silence; admitting that a child is being psychologically abused by a family member could be seen as airing “dirty laundry” and bringing dishonor [10]. As a result, there is a strong pressure to maintain the façade of familial harmony and victims are discouraged from seeking help. This “culture of silence” is a hallmark of collectivist societies and it clearly appears in the Indian context as well. The reviewed evidence noted that many Indian adolescents, especially girls, do not report emotional abuse because they anticipate being ignored or blamed. In fact, participants described the futility of reporting; disclosures were often met with disbelief or accusations of the child being at fault and virtually no protective action was taken [31]. Institutional actors that should safeguard children such as schools, child protection services, law enforcement as often remain on the sidelines unless physical harm is visible. Even teachers, who are on the front lines with adolescents, tend to overlook or undervalue emotional maltreatment. Consistent with findings in Western contexts, educators in India and similar societies receive little training to recognize psychological abuse and may feel unprepared to intervene [30]. In a nutshell, a recurring cross-cultural similarity is that emotional abuse is under-recognized and under-reported relative to other forms of maltreatment. Societal and institutional frameworks have been slow to address it, leaving a protective void around victims. The collective outcome is that adolescents in India, China, the Middle East and other collectivist settings often suffer emotional abuse in silence, caught between powerful parental authority and unresponsive institutions. Importantly, recognizing these cross-cultural parallels is the first step toward breaking the cycle. It highlights that the issue is rooted not in any one nation or “bad apples” but in broader socio-cultural patterns that can be changed. The ecological and comparative perspectives discussed above carry significant implications. They suggest that effective interventions must be multi-tiered: strengthening the microsystem by educating parents on emotional abuse and alternative discipline strategies, building mesosystem linkages so that schools and communities become safe avenues for disclosure, and reforming exosystem and macrosystem elements such as social norms and laws. For instance, public awareness campaigns in collectivist societies can work to redefine entrenched ideas of “good parenting,” showing that support and open communication are more beneficial than fear and control. Legal reforms are also key in India’s child protection laws currently lag in addressing emotional abuse, models exist (e.g., some East Asian countries have begun to implement anti-domestic violence laws encompassing psychological harm [30] that could be adapted in culturally sensitive ways [35]). Ultimately, this discussion reveals that emotional abuse among adolescents must be understood as a systemic issue. Adolescents’ vulnerability to emotional abuse is woven into the social fabric—from the home, where abuse often originates; to peer and school environments, which may tacitly condone it; to community and cultural norms that refuse to name it; and up to national policies that fail to penalize it. By interpreting the review’s findings through Bronfenbrenner’s multilevel framework and comparing India’s situation with other collectivist societies, we gain a comprehensive view; emotional abuse is maintained by social ecology, but this also means that change can be achieved at each ecological layer. Intervening at all levels—micro to macro—and learning from cross-cultural insights will be crucial in ensuring that the emotional suffering of adolescents in India and similar cultural contexts no longer remains unheard and unseen.

4.1. Implications

The review underscores the urgent need for culturally informed training programs for psychologists, counsellors, and school mental health workers. Emotional abuse in India is often subtle, disguised as care or discipline, making it harder to detect. Practitioners must be trained to recognize culturally normalized forms of abuse such as verbal humiliation, gender-based control, and emotional invalidation and respond with sensitivity. Furthermore, building trust with adolescents who have learned to suppress emotions is critical to therapeutic success.

Parents, extended adult family members, and other authority figures have a key role in perpetuating and potentially preventing emotional abuse. Many emotionally destructive activities are carried out in the name of love, protection, or educational boost. There must be clear education targeted at these caregivers to assist them spot emotional abuse and explain its long-term effects on adolescent mental health. Such programs should contain modules on nonviolent communication, emotional validation, and constructive discipline, as well as self-reflection exercises that encourage adults to assess their relationships with teenagers.

There is a clear need to expand child protection frameworks in India to explicitly recognize and address emotional abuse. National surveys and legislation often focus on physical and sexual abuse, leaving emotional maltreatment underdefined and under addressed. Policies must incorporate prevention programs in schools, mandatory teacher and parent training on non-violent communication, and the integration of emotional well-being measures in existing adolescent health schemes.

Teachers and school administrators play a critical role in either perpetuating or challenging emotional abuse. Educators must be trained to avoid emotionally abusive practices like public shaming, harsh comparisons, and punitive discipline. Implementing these strategies through platforms like the National Mental Health Programme (NMHP) or in collaboration with school boards and child protection units could provide adolescents with accessible, stigma-free avenues for support and redressal. Schools should also implement structured psychosocial support systems, such as adolescent helplines, safe spaces, and regular mental health screenings, particularly in urban and high-pressure academic settings. Creating emotionally safe learning environments is essential to fostering resilience and identity development among students.

4.2. Strengths and Limitations

This review makes significant contributions to the understudied field of emotional abuse among Indian adolescents by combining qualitative and mixed-methods studies via a culturally grounded perspective. One of the review’s key strengths is its rigorous and transparent process. The implementation of PRISMA principles, multiple database searches, and rigorous quality evaluation through the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) improved the review process’s credibility and comprehensiveness. However, some limitations must be acknowledged. The emphasis on qualitative research allowed for in-depth insights into adolescents’ actual experiences, revealing nuances that are frequently overlooked in quantitative syntheses. the inclusion of some mixed-methods studies with limited qualitative data may have influenced the depth and richness of the synthesis. While every effort was made to preserve the contextual integrity of findings, the retrospective nature of some participant accounts (e.g., reflecting on adolescence from adulthood) may have introduced recall bias. Although disparities in sample size, regional coverage, and operational definitions of emotional abuse were noted, they highlight the difficulty of capturing such a sensitive and culturally rooted phenomena. Rather than detracting from the review’s strengths, these subtleties emphasize the significance of future studies building a more broad and methodologically consistent body of knowledge.

Given these strengths and limitations, the findings of this review should be understood as offering a contextually rich but interpretive synthesis. The results are particularly applicable to similar collectivist, patriarchal, and hierarchical cultural settings, but should be cautiously extrapolated beyond the Indian context.

4.3. Conclusions

This systematic review highlights the complex and culturally embedded nature of emotional abuse among Indian adolescents. Drawing on 15 qualitative and mixed-methods studies, the review identifies recurring patterns of suppressed emotionality, gendered control, authority-legitimized abuse, and a lack of societal support. These findings highlight the pervasiveness of emotional abuse in India’s familial, educational, and social structures.

While adolescents frequently find imaginative coping techniques, the long-term psychological consequences of unrecognized and normalized emotional abuse are severe. The review emphasizes the critical need for culturally responsive interventions that reach beyond clinical settings to include schools, families, and communities. It emphasizes the necessity of providing caregivers, educators, and legislators with tools for recognizing and preventing emotionally destructive behaviors.

By focusing on the behavior of adolescents lived experiences, this review helps to provide a more grounded and realistic understanding of emotional abuse in collectivist settings. Future studies should focus on context-specific expressions of emotional injury, as well as on interventions that affirm and protect young people’s emotional lives.