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Article

Adolescent Development in Unprecedented Times: A Comparative Study of Theory of Mind Before and After COVID-19

by
Meghan L. Maynard
1,*,
Huma Khalid
1,
Zahra Karimi Valoojerdy
1,
Victoria Talwar
2 and
Sandra L. Bosacki
1
1
Faculty of Education, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada
2
Faculty of Education, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 0G4, Canada
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Adolescents 2025, 5(2), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents5020011
Submission received: 24 November 2024 / Revised: 19 February 2025 / Accepted: 18 March 2025 / Published: 3 April 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Adolescent Health and Mental Health)
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic represented a significant global event that disrupted the typical social lives of adolescents. Studies show that the pandemic negatively impacted adolescent well-being. Very little is known about the social–cognitive implications of wide-scale social distancing, school closures, and the transition to digital modes of communication for adolescents. This study aims to compare affective Theory of Mind (ToM), self-esteem, and self-perceptions before and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Drawing on existing data, this study compared two distinct but comparable samples of adolescents. Data from the pre-COVID-19 sample were collected in the 2016/2017 school year (N = 145, 60.7% female and 39.3% male, mean age 13.38 years. Data from the post-COVID-19 sample were collected over the 2021/2022 school year (N = 107 participants, 51% female, 48% male, and 1% genderqueer, mean age of 13 years). Independent-sample t-tests and two-tailed correlational analysis were used to compare associations and changes in affective ToM, self-perceptions, and self-esteem between the pre-COVID-19 and post-COVID-19 samples. The main findings of this study includes declines in affective ToM post-COVID-19, specifically related to the perception of negative affect. Further, perceived self-worth and behavioural conduct declined after the COVID-19 pandemic. Implications for social–emotional learning and future research are discussed.

1. Introduction

Adolescence is a significant phase of transition from childhood to adulthood, which represents a considerable developmental change in cognitive, emotional, and social dimensions [1,2]. One such change involves the development of mentalization skills, referred to as Theory of Mind (ToM) skills [3], defined as the ability to perceive and understand both the inner experiences of oneself as well as of others [4,5]. The COVID-19 pandemic and associated emergency measures, such as lockdowns and social distancing, may have changed the typical path of ToM development in adolescents. Throughout COVID-19 emergency measures, adolescents faced reduced physical social interactions and an increased reliance on digital modes of communication. These changes to social communication limited adolescents’ opportunities to engage in the face-to-face social interactions inextricably linked to the development of ToM skills [6]. Additionally, increased stress and changes in family routines may have further impacted cognitive resources and social experiences, affecting ToM development and adolescent well-being [1,7]. The primary purpose of this paper is to compare adolescent ToM, self-perceptions, and self-esteem before and after the COVID-19 pandemic.

1.1. Theory of Mind and Adolescent Development

Theory of mind, or mentalization, is a multi-dimensional collection of cognitive skills that enable individuals to comprehend and predict the thoughts, beliefs, and emotions of themselves and others, which are fundamental for social interactions [1,8]. As adolescents undergo complex social dynamics and psychological growth, ToM plays a significant role in understanding other individuals’ perspectives, engaging in empathetic interactions, and successfully navigating social relationships [1,2,9].
Theory of mind begins to develop in early childhood, around the ages of 3–4 years, in typically developing children [10], with significant advancement occurring during adolescence, particularly in advanced ToM abilities (including the ability to understand the social use of non-literal language such as humour, irony, and sarcasm and to reason about complex social situations that involve ambiguous and mixed emotions), which continues throughout adolescence [11]. These advanced ToM skills are closely connected to social cognitive changes, the development of emotional understanding, and self-knowledge, all of which play key roles in forming and maintaining social relationships and fostering emotional well-being [4,12]. During early adolescence (ages 11–13 years), significant functional and structural changes occur in the brain, particularly in the prefrontal cortex regions, which have been found to be associated with social cognition, increasing sensitivity to social signals [2,13]. This stage is highly flexible, allowing social experiences to strongly influence ToM development [14]. In middle adolescence, peer influence on conformity shows a curvilinear pattern [15]. By late adolescence, teens become more aware of social dynamics and self-consciousness, helping them refine advanced ToM skills such as understanding nuanced social interactions and complex emotions [2,16].
ToM is categorized into subdomains, including cognitive ToM, which focuses on understanding oneself and others’ beliefs and intentions [5], and affective ToM, that involves understanding one’s own emotions, as well as those of others [17]. Past studies show associations between affective ToM and adolescents’ empathetic engagement, moral reasoning, and social competence [14]. In contrast, studies have also shown that proficiency in affective ToM is linked to critical self-responding, low levels of global self-worth, and well-being [18,19]. Furthermore, some studies have demonstrated that challenges to psychological well-being, such as depression, are linked to a lack of ability to recognize emotion [20]. Building on this foundational understanding, this paper explores affective ToM, or mentalization, specifically focusing on affect recognition tasks.

1.2. Psychological Well-Being, Self-Esteem, and Self-Perceptions in Adolescence

Adolescents’ sense of well-being plays an important role in their development, affecting their mental health, social relationships, and academic performance [21]. During the formative adolescent years, well-being is not limited to the absence of illness but encompasses a state of mental, physical, and social well-being [22]. Psychological well-being includes various dimensions, such as self-acceptance, ongoing personal growth, autonomy, and a sense of purpose [23]. Moreover, psychological well-being and global self-worth (or self-esteem) are closely related constructs [24]. The concept of psychological well-being has been expanded in recent years to include a wide range of affective experiences, emphasizing both the importance of managing a spectrum of emotions and the capacity for emotional regulation as integral components of it [25]. In the literature, social well-being has been described as a sense of belonging, social acceptance, and the ability to contribute meaningfully to society, indicating an individual’s integration and contribution to society [26]. Adolescent psychological well-being is influenced by numerous interconnected factors, including self-esteem and self-schema (or self-perceptions) [27,28].
An individual’s self-esteem, a subjective sense of one’s worth or value [29,30], has a close connection to various positive outcomes, including life satisfaction, happiness, resistance to stress, and psychological well-being [31]. It consists of multiple evaluations across domains, including physical appearance, moral or behavioural conduct, and academic achievement [32]. Low self-esteem is associated with challenges such as depression, anxiety, reduce motivation and learning, which may hinder one’s ability to understand and interact with others [28,33,34]. The relations between adolescents’ perceived self-worth and ToM remains contradictory and inconsistent. For instance, some studies suggest that individuals with high self-esteem demonstrate high levels of empathy and social competence [35,36], whereas others find no significant associations [37,38]. This differs for adults, wherein many studies show positive associations between affective ToM and self-esteem [39].
Self-schemas, which encapsulate an individual’s beliefs, perceptions, and ideas about themselves, can significantly influence mental health and emotional regulation [27]. A positive self-schema enhances resilience and well-being, while a negative self-schema is linked to increased psychological difficulties, such as depression and anxiety, by promoting negative interpretations of experiences and emotions [27,40]. Therefore, interventions fostering positive self-schema are crucial for supporting adolescents’ psychological well-being and emotional regulation during this formative period [27,40].
Interpersonal relationships further play a critical role in shaping adolescent well-being and self-esteem in bidirectional ways [38,41]. That is, positive and supportive interpersonal relationships enhance self-esteem, in that one perceives themselves with high self-worth. On the other hand, high levels of self-worth help one to feel confident to approach others and interact in prosocial ways [42]. In terms of ToM, strong mentalization skills improve social competence and relationship quality [14,27,36,39], whereas studies show the reverse is also true [43]. In contrast, poor ToM skills may lead to a lack of positive social interactions and low-quality interpersonal relationships, which in turn may lead to negative self-perceptions [44,45]. Such complex inter-connections highlight the intricate and subtle dynamics between self-esteem (or self-schemas), ToM, and social interactions. These factors collectively contribute to adolescents’ psychological well-being, highlighting the importance of adaptive self-esteem and ToM necessary to foster emotional well-being during adolescence [19,27,37].

1.3. Adolescent Theory of Mind, Well-Being, and Self-Esteem During COVID-19 Restrictions

The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic significantly disrupted adolescent life worldwide, emerging as a pivotal adverse childhood experience (ACE) with lasting implications for their physical and mental health [46]. The emergency measures, such as social distancing, school closures, and the transition to virtual learning, contributed to a marked reduction in adolescents’ social interactions, impacting their development with challenges such as increased isolation, anxiety, reduced motivation, and difficulty acquiring new knowledge, all of which hinder youth development [47,48].
Research studies have highlighted the detrimental effects of the COVID-19 emergency measures on adolescents’ social and emotional growth [48]. For instance, wearing facial masks impaired children’s capacity to perceive emotions in others [49], while disrupted routines and reduced social engagement led to heightened stress, mood disorders, and a decline in emotional regulation among adolescents [50,51]. Limited face-to-face interactions and an increased reliance on digital modes of communication further impacted adolescents’ ability to understand and respond to social cues, potentially leading to difficulties in social relationships and emotional regulation [48,49,52]. These findings underscore the risks posed to adolescents’ overall well-being and highlight the necessity for supportive measures to reduce these developmental consequences [48].
Many research studies have shown that the challenges related to the COVID-19 pandemic had profound implications for adolescents’ well-being and self-esteem [53]. Adolescents reported increased rates of anxiety, depression, and loneliness, reflecting the adverse impact of the pandemic [54]. The pandemic’s effect on adolescents’ self-esteem has been multifaceted, with some adolescents experiencing declines due to social isolation, while others found new sources of self-worth through online communities and hobbies [47,55].
Social barriers, such as decreased in-person interactions and increased feelings of loneliness, had a detrimental effect on adolescents’ self-esteem, highlighting the significant role of social ties in fostering adolescent well-being [53,54,55,56]. Digital communication, while offering certain benefits, presented a mixed impact on adolescents’ psychological well-being. On the one hand, online interactions reduce barriers to connection by providing emotional support through messaging and social media platforms, informational support via online forums and groups, and companionship through gaming and virtual meeting spaces [47,55]. Additionally, online environments can offer controlled settings that might reduce social anxiety and allow individuals to curate their social presence and manage their self-disclosure more strategically [57]. On the other hand, digital communication poses risks, such as harmful social comparison and cyberbullying, which may exacerbate feelings of loneliness and lower self-esteem [57].
Despite such challenges, research indicates that adolescents have demonstrated resilience in adapting to their new social settings [55,58]. Recent studies suggest that, for some adolescents, their family social ties may have strengthened throughout the pandemic, providing new opportunities for social and emotional growth [55]. Additionally, studies suggest that following the initial emergency measures of COVID-19 and subsequent disruption to adolescent well-being, some adolescents demonstrated emotional resilience by reporting substantial improvements in life satisfaction, and recovery from initial social and emotional setbacks [58]. Many studies showed that although the pandemic disrupted traditional day to day routines and environments for socialization and skill development, the shared global event may have provided a unique shared experience that also may have encouraged adolescents to generate different ways to interact with and understand other people [59,60].

1.4. Current Study

The COVID-19 pandemic represented a significant life event that interrupted the typical academic and social behaviour of adolescents. Our study aimed to explicitly investigate how affective ToM, or one’s ability to perceive the emotions of others, and adolescent self-perceptions, or dimensions of self-esteem and well-being, changed between 2016/2017 and 2021/2022.
Adolescence represents a critical period for the development of affective ToM and relies heavily on reciprocal social interaction and a full spectrum of social cues to accurately perceive the emotions of others and develop these critical mentalization skills [3,6]. Throughout the 2020/2021-year, face-to-face social interaction was restricted for most adolescents across Canada. Further, digital modes of communication and facial mask-wearing potentially altered adolescents’ access to a full spectrum of social cues during a developmentally sensitive period for affective ToM development [4,61]. The COVID-19 pandemic has been expressly linked to challenges of well-being, associated with feelings of isolation and the experience of a collective psychological traumatic experience [54,62].
To our knowledge, no studies have compared pre-COVID-19 affective ToM and post-COVID-19 affective ToM. While many studies have explored the deleterious effect of COVID-19 on adolescent well-being, i.e., [54], to our knowledge, none have explicitly explored changes to adolescent self-perceptions or self-esteem following the COVID-19 crisis. The documented changes in well-being and social connectivity lay the groundwork for investigating broader aspects of adolescents’ social–emotional development, such as ToM and overall self-perceptions, in the context of the pandemic. There remains a notable gap in understanding the full impact of these challenging times on such developmental components. Drawing on the aforementioned literature, we predicted that affective ToM skills would be negatively impacted post-COVID-19. Further, we predicted that positive self-perceptions and dimensions of well-being and self-esteem would also decline in post-COVID-19 measurements as compared to pre-COVID-19 measurements, given the past studies that suggest experiences during the time of COVID-19 played an intervening role in lowering adolescents’ emotional health and well-being [22,54].

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants

This study received research ethics clearance from both the participating school boards and universities. Prior to participation, written consent was obtained from participants’ parents/guardians, and participants provided verbal assent to participate at the time of the data collection. This study involved comparative cross-sectional analysis from 2 distinct, more extensive studies with comparable but different participants. Data were collected for the first study in the 2016/2017 school year (prior to the COVID-19 pandemic), and the sample included 145 participants (60.7% female and 39.3% male), with a mean age of 13.38 years. Data from the second study were collected over the 2021/2022 school year (post-COVID-19 emergency measures), and the sample included 107 participants (51.4% female, 47.7% male, and 0.9% genderqueer), with a mean age of 13.0 years. Participants ranged in age from 11 to 16 and participated via school and community recruitment efforts. Participants in the 2016/2017 and 2021/2022 samples were recruited from the same geographic communities and school boards. Both groups reported they were predominantly English-speaking and predominantly identified as Canadian from a cultural perspective. A sample size calculation was completed, the findings of which indicated that, based on a medium effect size (r = 0.3) and a desired power of 80%, a sample size of 84 participants would be required to detect correlations at the 0.05 significance level.

2.2. Measures

2.2.1. Affective Theory of Mind

To measure affective ToM, the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET) [63] was administered. This assessment measures the ability to accurately identify the emotional states of others based on the facial expression of the eyes and measures one’s ability to interpret emotional states based on photos of faces showing an individuals’ eyes only [63]. More specifically, each of the 36 items displays a picture of a person’s eye region followed by 4 multiple-choice emotion description words [63]. Participants must choose one word that best describes the emotion portrayed in the eyes and are scored as either correct, for selecting the accurate emotional state, or incorrect [63]. The RMET provides a total assessment of affective ToM, with higher scores indicating a stronger ability to perceive emotions, along with three subscales reflecting the ability to accurately perceive nuanced emotions of positive, negative, or neutral valence [63]. Examples of positively valence emotions include playful and friendly, while negatively valence emotions include worried and upset, and neutrally valence emotions include insisting and contemplative. Psychometric properties among adolescent populations suggest a total mean score of 20.29 (SD = 2.65) and Cronbach’s alpha ranging from 0.33 to 0.51 [64,65]. Despite low internal consistency, past studies show the RMET is a valid and reliable measure of individual differences in ToM in young adolescent populations [8,11,64,65,66,67,68]. Given such findings, the RMET was used as a ToM measure in the present study. Research suggests that the RMET is a valid and reliable measure as an overall ToM measure that combines both affective and cognitive dimensions of mentalization (emotion recognition and perspective-taking) [64].

2.2.2. Self-Perceptions and Self-Esteem

The Harter Self Perception Profile for Children (SPPC) [69] was administered as a self-report measure of a person’s self-schema, consisting of six dimensions. The present study focused on three dimensions which have been found to play important roles in an adolescents’ well-being (self-evaluations of physical appearance, behavioural conduct, and global self-worth (overall self-esteem)). Each subscale comprises 6 items that evaluate the child’s perceptions of self for each subscale domain. The physical appearance subscale measures the “extent to which one feels one is good-looking” and “happy with one’s looks”. The behavioural conduct subscale measures the extent one feels satisfied with their prosocial or moral behaviour, and the global self-worth subscale measures one’s general perception of self, or self-esteem, which can reflect an overall view of one’s sense of emotional well-being [69]. Each subscale provides good internal consistency across diverse samples, with Cronbach’s alpha values ranging from 0.71 to 0.90 [69]. Normative data for children aged 11-16 suggest mean scores of 2.7 (SD = 0.73) for physical appearance, 2.8 (SD = 0.64) for behavioural conduct, and 3.1 (SD = 0.58) for global self-worth [69]. Moreover, the data for the remaining three subscales-social acceptance, scholastic competence, and athletic competence-was not collected, as these dimensions were not central to the objectives of the current study. The study’s primary focus on emotional well-being was best captured through the selected subscales, namely global self-worth, behavioural conduct, and physical appearance, which have been shown in prior research to be closely associated with an adolescent’s overall psychological well-being [29,70].

2.3. Procedure

This comparative study reports on the differences in affective ToM, self-esteem, and self-perceptions, comparing outcomes from the 2016/2017 academic year (pre-COVID-19) with the 2021/2022 academic year (post-COVID-19). The pre-COVID-19 and the post-COVID-19 data sets were collected as part of 2 larger and distinct studies, wherein participants completed a battery of self-report measures. Pre-COVID-19 data were collected via in-person, paper, and pencil measures, while post-COVID-19 data were collected via Qualtrics survey software. Both pre-COVID-19 and post-COVID-19 questionnaires were administered by researchers, in person or virtually, respectively.

3. Results

3.1. Data Analysis and Descriptive Statistics

Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows, version 30. Data that reflected potential deviations from normality in skewness, kurtosis, or visual graphical inspection were tested for normality using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test (KS), specifically the 2016/2017 RMET total variable. The results indicated that the distribution did not significantly deviate from normality, D(130) = 0.067, p = 0.200. With respect to further data analysis, first, a two-tailed correlational analysis of the RMET total and subscales and self-perceptions of physical appearance, behavioural conduct, and global self-worth (self-esteem and well-being) within each sample group (pre- and post-COVID-19) was completed, followed by a two-tailed correlational analysis across sample groups. Next, independent-samples t-tests were used to test for significant differences between the variables pre-COVID-19 and post-COVID-19. Finally, a post hoc power analysis was conducted to contextualize the findings. Table 1 provides an overview of the descriptive statistics. Participants with missing data were removed from the analysis, and the valid N for each variable tested is shown in the table.

3.2. Correlation

Our findings show significant correlations between affective ToM, global self-worth, and perceived behavioural conduct prior to the onset of COVID-19. Specifically, perceptions of physical appearance were negatively related to total affective ToM (r[127] = −0.244, p = 0.005), perceptions of emotions of positive valence (r[144] = −0.195, p = 0.018), and perceptions of emotions of negative valence (r[144] = −0.221, p = 0.007). Furthermore, within the pre-COVID-19 sample, the ability to accurately perceive emotions of negative valence was negatively related to perceptions of global self-worth (r[144] = −0.238, p = 0.004) (previously reported, [19]). These findings suggest that, for the pre-COVID-19 sample group, proficiency with affective ToM or perceiving affect in others was associated with lower perceptions of one’s self-worth and physical appearance. While the pre-COVID-19 participant group showed correlations between self-perceptions and ToM, these links were not significant among the post COVID-19 participant group. The changes in correlations may reflect inherent differences in the participant groups; however, the absence of significant correlations between ToM and self-perceptions post-COVID-19 may highlight a changing dynamic between ToM and perceptions of self among adolescents living before and after the COVID-19 pandemic.
Cross-correlational analysis revealed several key findings. Within the pre COVID-19 cohort, negative links were found between total ToM score and perceptions of neutral emotions (r[100] = −0.281, p = 0.004). However, within the post-COVID-19 cohort, perceptions of positive emotions were negatively associated with total ToM (r[84] = −0.219, p = 0.043). Such differences in findings across cohorts may indicate significant changes in the ability to recognize specific emotions.

3.3. Group Differences

As predicted, the post-COVID-19 sample demonstrated significantly weakened abilities in nuanced affective ToM, specifically in identifying emotions of negative valence. Surprisingly, these changes in affective ToM did not represent the total constellation of affective ToM abilities in the RMET. Furthermore, our findings indicated that perceived global self-worth and behavioural conduct decreased in the post-COVID-19 sample; that is, post-COVID-19, adolescents reported a decline in their perceptions of their moral and behavioural conduct and global self-worth, as compared to the pre-COVID-19 group. Table 2 provides an overview of these findings.

3.4. Power Analysis

A post hoc power analysis was conducted to determine the observed power of the independent-samples t-tests. Table 3 provides an overview of these findings. The independent-samples t-test power analysis highlighted sufficient power with respect to the analysis of self-perceptions of behavioural conduct and self-perceptions of global self-worth. The findings further highlight low levels of power with respect to the independent-samples t-tests of the remaining variables (RMET positive, RMET negative, RMET neutral, RMET total, and SPPC physical appearance). These findings suggest an increased risk of type I or type II error in the independent-samples t-test analysis of these variables.

4. Discussion

Our findings demonstrated changes to adolescents’ ToM, self-perceptions, and self-esteem during the years before and after the COVID-19 pandemic. While these changes in affective ToM, self-perception, and self-esteem cannot be attributed directly to the COVID-19 pandemic and associated emergency measures, consistent with our predictions, our main findings indicate that nuanced affective ToM proficiency for adolescents declined post-COVID-19, along with perceptions of self-worth and moral conduct. In addition, while the total constellation of affective ToM skills remained consistent across the pre- and post-COVID-19 groups, our findings suggest that adolescents’ abilities to accurately perceive negative affect declined, compared to pre-COVID-19 findings.
Our results complement those of Chester et al. [49], who found that, in children, the affect recognition of sad faces ability declined post-COVID-19. Furthermore, Chester et al. [49] also found that the decline in affect recognition skills was more pronounced for children who experienced greater levels of social distancing. Interestingly, Chester et al. [49] identified that significant affect recognition declined with facial mask-wearing and potentially attributed the decline to an absence of holistic facial cues of emotion. Conversely, the participants in this study identified affect solely through the eye region in both pre- and post-COVID-19 samples and generated similar findings with respect to Chester et al.’s [49] results of decline in affect recognition with facial mask-wearing. In concert, these findings may suggest that, for youth, the recognition of negative affect is hindered by facial mask-wearing, and the consequences of this may extend into the general development of affective ToM. That is, we must consider that the impact of facial mask-wearing on youth’s ToM may not be remedied simply by removing the mask; our findings suggest that youth post-COVID-19 are less adept at dimensions of affective ToM than the pre-COVID-19 sample group. Our findings indicate that adolescents have experienced a change in their affective ToM skills and development in recent years, and perhaps the aversive or socially dynamic experience of COVID-19 has influenced this change.
Second, our findings indicated that adaptive self-perceptions of behavioural or moral conduct, and of global self-worth or self-esteem, were significantly lower in the post-COVID-19 sample of participants. These findings suggest that post-COVID-19, adolescents may be more critical of themselves, specifically related to their behavioural conduct and general perception of their worth and value. These findings align with prior research that identified that adolescents experienced an increase in internalizing symptoms following the COVID-19 event, characterized by an increase in depression and anxiety [54]. Such challenges to emotional well-being are hallmarked by increases in negative self-evaluations [71,72], and our findings indicated that these increases to self-criticism may specifically relate to negative moral and behavioural evaluations, and evaluations of general self-worth and value. Furthermore, the extant literature suggests that post COVID-19, children and adolescents, especially those with pre-existing neurodevelopmental concerns, experienced a marked increase in externalizing behavioural struggles, such as impulsivity, temper tantrums, and opposition [73].
Our findings may indicate that, post-COVID-19, non-clinical populations of adolescents may also endorse increased challenges with behavioural regulation, as evidenced by the decline in perceptions of behavioural or moral conduct identified in this study. While there is a plethora of research which speaks to the detrimental effects of the pandemic on the behaviour of children [73,74,75]—specifically children impacted by neurodevelopmental disabilities [73]—research into the behaviour of typically developing adolescents in a post-COVID-19 context is especially scant. A large proportion of current research into adolescent well-being in the post-COVID-19 context relates explicitly to internalizing challenges [74,76], lifestyle risk behaviour (i.e., smoking, drinking, and excessive technology use) [77], and suicidal behaviours [78]. Very few studies have explicitly explored prosocial behaviour among typically developing adolescents in the post-COVID-19 context [79,80]. Our findings highlight that typically developing adolescents are endorsing perceived declines in their adherence to rules, controlling impulsivity, behavioural modulation, and pro-social actions, necessitating further research to more robustly comprehend the phenomenon.
The COVID-19 pandemic represented a collective traumatic experience for adolescents [81], wherein regular routines, social connections, and environmental stability were interrupted. Research demonstrates that traumatic experiences, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, have the potential to alter adolescents’ perceptions of self-worth and behavioural conduct [82,83], as observed in our present findings. Furthermore, research also suggests that traumatic experiences may interrupt the typical trajectory of ToM development during the adolescent years [84,85].
Collectively, our findings suggest that the landscape of adolescent social–emotional well-being has undergone significant changes in recent years. Our findings pertaining to the drastic changes in the relationship between ToM and self-perceptions highlights these recent shifts. While perceptions of physical appearance and self-esteem (or well-being) demonstrated inverse relationships with ToM prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, post-COVID-19, affective ToM was no longer related to self-perceptions of physical appearance or self-esteem. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, youth who were skilled at perceiving affect in others perceived themselves more negatively, and these constructs no longer demonstrated a significant relationship post-COVID-19. While the change in the relations between affective ToM and self-perceptions may be attributed to the fundamental differences in the sample groups, that is, two differentiated groups of adolescents, we must also consider the potential moderating role of the COVID-19 pandemic. COVID-19 and the associated emergency measures significantly changed the social landscape for adolescents, impacting their mental health [54], social behaviour, and, potentially, development [48,54].
In conclusion, our findings highlight that, following the COVID-19 pandemic, adolescents experienced a decline in affective ToM abilities, along with a detrimental impact on self-esteem and perceptions of behaviour. In light of the illuminated challenges with perceptions of behavioural or moral conduct, we must consider that the sequalae of the pandemic may include challenges with behavioural modulation for adolescents. In the aftermath of the collective trauma of COVID-19, our findings suggest that the social and emotional consequences of the pandemic are multifaceted and may have facilitated unexpected positive outcomes in certain areas of adolescent development.

5. Implications and Limitations

The COVID-19 pandemic represented a global event for which the full implications remain unclear. Declines in affective ToM may have long-term implications for children and adolescents, notably with respect to social and emotional development. Social–emotional skills are critical for adaptive social relationships, mental well-being, and academic achievements [86,87]. Recent research further supports the importance of these skills, showing that resilience in social–emotional capacities can mitigate the impacts of pandemic-related stressors on youth [88]. These findings give emphasis to the need for social-emotional learning (SEL) curricula and positive youth development programmes (PYD) in the wake of COVID-19. Both types of educational programmes represent a conceptual framework of practices that promote the social and emotional learning needs of children and adolescents during the school years [89,90].
Through engagement in SEL programmes, students develop skills and knowledge that support positive emotional and social functioning and may include knowledge and skills pertaining to emotional awareness, emotional management, empathy, and interpersonal effectiveness [89]. Directed SEL programmes and curriculums may work to mitigate the declines in affective ToM observed in this study and support positive behavioural development and enhancement of self-worth. Furthermore, our study captured data during the 2021/2022 academic year, wherein many aspects of social distancing and threats of large-scale emergency measures persisted. This snapshot of changes to affective ToM development may not represent the totality of developmental impact. The findings of this study call for further longitudinal research to understand the long-term social–cognitive implications of COVID-19 for children and adolescents and provide focused SEL curriculum development to effectively target lagging social–cognitive skills.
Our study is not without limitations. While our study does capture changes to adolescent ToM and self-esteem post-COVID-19, we cannot definitively attribute these changes directly to COVID-19. Furthermore, we must situate these findings in the context of the culturally homogenous sample groups, which may affect the generalizability of these findings. Moreover, as this study reflects two distinct sample groups, with differing data collection approaches, we must consider the possibility of inherent group differences, which may have influenced the outcomes and findings. Finally, some of our findings may have been impacted by relatively low statistical power, and as such, may not encompass the totality of differences. Future research is needed to more robustly test the differences in ToM, before and after COVID-19. Furthermore, future research may explore additional dimensions of ToM, integrating multiple measures of both cognitive and affective ToM, with more diverse sample groups.

6. Conclusions

The COVID-19 pandemic represented an unprecedented global event, and this study explored the intricate dynamics of adolescent ToM, self-perceptions, and self-esteem before and after this significant event. Our findings highlight that post-COVID-19 adolescents are less adept at perceiving negative emotions in others and have experienced detrimental changes to perceptions of one’s self-worth and behavioural conduct. We must also consider the latent effects of the trauma of COVID-19 on ToM development, self-esteem, and externalizing behaviour.
This study contributes to the growing body of literature on the social–cognitive changes adolescents have experienced in recent years, highlighting how COVID-19 and the associated emergency measures may have impacted social–cognitive development. The findings of this study call for a robust, longitudinal exploration of post-COVID-19 social–cognitive development in children and adolescents. Our findings also indicate a need for targeted SEL and PYD to mitigate gaps in ToM development.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.L.M., S.L.B. and V.T.; methodology, M.L.M., S.L.B. and V.T.; validation, M.L.M.; formal analysis, M.L.M., H.K. and Z.K.V.; resources, S.L.B. and V.T.; data curation, S.L.B. and V.T.; writing—original draft preparation, M.L.M., H.K. and Z.K.V.; writing—review and editing, M.L.M., H.K., Z.K.V., S.L.B. and V.T.; supervision, S.L.B. and V.T.; project administration, S.L.B. and V.T.; funding acquisition, S.L.B. and V.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, SSHRC IG #435-2021-0098.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board (or Ethics Committee) of Brock University and McGill University (Brock Research Ethics Board 20-311).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, M.L.M., upon reasonable request.

Acknowledgments

We would like to sincerely thank the participants and their families for their valuable contributions to this project. Furthermore, we would like to extend our gratitude to the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council for generously funding this research.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Table 1. Descriptive statistics.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics.
VariableN 2016Mean 2016SD 2016Median 2016IQR 2016Skewness 2016Kurtosis 2016N 2022Mean 2022SD 2022Median 2022IQR 2022Skewness 2022Kurtosis 2022
RMET Total13020.945.132118–24.25−0.441.4410220.125.512117–24−0.510.2
RMET Neutral1478.652.6997–11−0.07−0.591029.122.9997–11−0.14−0.49
RMET Negative1477.121.9676–8−0.1−0.321026.62.1675–8−0.18−0.21
RMET Positive1474.761.5654–6−0.23−0.681024.41.7953–6−0.42−0.55
SPPC Physical Appearance1462.490.852.51.83–3.170.05−0.82912.430.832.41.8–3.00.15−0.78
SPPC Behavioural Conduct1462.890.72.922.33–3.5−0.24−0.5912.070.7321.6–2.50.43−0.48
SPPC Global Self-Worth1462.920.7232.5–3.5−0.690.11912.180.7821.6–2.60.61−0.11
Table 2. Independent-sample t-test results.
Table 2. Independent-sample t-test results.
VariableN 2016
N 2022		Mean Differencet-Valuedfp-ValueCohen’s dLower * CIUpper * CI
RMET Positive147
102		0.3601.684247p = 0.0930.217−0.0360.470
RMET Negative147
102		0.5241.989247p = 0.0480.2560.0020.510
RMET Neutral147
102		−0.465−1.280247p = 0.202−0.165−0.4180.088
RMET Total130
102		0.8201.172230p = 0.2420.155−0.1050.414
SPPC *
Physical Appearance		146
91		0.0650.576235p = 0.5650.077−0.1850.339
SPPC Behavioural Conduct146
91		0.8288.740235p < 0.0011.1670.8841.448
SPPS Global Self-Worth146
91		0.7397.418235p < 0.0010.9910.6481.240
* 95% confidence interval.
Table 3. Independent-samples t-test power.
Table 3. Independent-samples t-test power.
VariableEffect SizeObserved Powerp-Value
RMET Positive0.2170.3820.093
RMET Negative0.2560.5030.048
RMET Neutral−0.1650.2450.202
RMET Total0.1550.2240.242
SPPC Physical Appearance0.0770.0890.565
SPPC Behavioural Conduct1.1671<0.001
SPPC Global Self-Worth0.9911<0.001
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Maynard, M.L.; Khalid, H.; Karimi Valoojerdy, Z.; Talwar, V.; Bosacki, S.L. Adolescent Development in Unprecedented Times: A Comparative Study of Theory of Mind Before and After COVID-19. Adolescents 2025, 5, 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents5020011

AMA Style

Maynard ML, Khalid H, Karimi Valoojerdy Z, Talwar V, Bosacki SL. Adolescent Development in Unprecedented Times: A Comparative Study of Theory of Mind Before and After COVID-19. Adolescents. 2025; 5(2):11. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents5020011

Chicago/Turabian Style

Maynard, Meghan L., Huma Khalid, Zahra Karimi Valoojerdy, Victoria Talwar, and Sandra L. Bosacki. 2025. "Adolescent Development in Unprecedented Times: A Comparative Study of Theory of Mind Before and After COVID-19" Adolescents 5, no. 2: 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents5020011

APA Style

Maynard, M. L., Khalid, H., Karimi Valoojerdy, Z., Talwar, V., & Bosacki, S. L. (2025). Adolescent Development in Unprecedented Times: A Comparative Study of Theory of Mind Before and After COVID-19. Adolescents, 5(2), 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents5020011

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