Electrospun Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Ideal Scaffold System
- The scaffold should feature an interconnected porous structure with controlled pore geometry and size. This structure should maintain mechanical stability over a period of time, facilitating adequate tissue regeneration within the scaffold. The interconnected porous structure is crucial for cell clearance, nutrient transport, and removal of cellular waste, all of which are vital for cell formation and tissue growth. The optimal size and morphology of the pores can vary depending on the cell type, but they should be large enough to support three-dimensional tissue formation through multilayered cell growth. Additionally, a highly porous scaffold not only maximizes tissue growth but also minimizes material usage [24,25,26].
3. Scaffold Materials
4. Electrospinning
- (a)
- Spinning time; electrospinning is particularly suitable for fabricating 2D structures, such as membranes with random or aligned orientations [92]. However, conventional electrospinning leads to changes in membrane thickness over time, resulting in 3D structures with thicknesses ranging from tens to hundreds of microns. Moreover, multilayered 3D macrostructures comprising different materials can be achieved through sequential electrospinning [15,93] or co-electrospinning [94], involving the exchange and electrospinning of polymer solutions under different conditions [95].
- (b)
- (c)
- Direct assembly using auxiliary factors, such as 3D templates [99], liquid collectors, or porogenic agents. Templates are commonly in the form of mechanical collectors with desired shapes (e.g., rotating collectors or static collectors) or other fibrous structures (e.g., microfibers), which serve as matrix templates [100,101].
- -
- Rotating collectors enable the fabrication of single or interconnected micro- and macro-tubes with multiple micropatterns [102].
- -
- -
- Liquid collectors are effective for manufacturing 3D fibrous structures by utilizing liquid deposition or vortex formation to solidify the fibers, resulting in a 3D fibrous structure [106].
- -
- The addition of porogenic agents, such as ice crystals [107,108], salt particles [109] or even certain polymers (e.g., PEO), is ideal for fabricating highly porous 3D fibrous structures [110,111]. These materials, acting as porogens, are typically mixed with the precursor during the electrospinning process and later washed away after reaching the desired thickness [109].
- (d)
- Self-assembly is a strategy for creating nest-like fibrous structures through the utilization of electrostatic forces between already collected fibers, where flying fibers are directed to settle on nearby conductive regions to dissipate their charges [112].
5. Applications
5.1. Nerve and Neural Regeneration
5.2. Skin Regeneration
5.3. Bone Regeneration
5.4. Cartilage Regeneration
5.5. Tendon and Ligament Regeneration
5.6. Vascular Regeneration
5.7. Cardiac Regeneration
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Category | Polymers |
---|---|
Natural polymers | Cellulose [51] |
Xanthan gum [52] | |
Poly(hydroxyalkanoates) [53] | |
Starch [54] | |
Chitosan [55] | |
Chitin [56] | |
Pullulan [57] | |
Alginate [58] | |
Wheat gluten [59] | |
Gelatin [60] | |
Collagen [61] | |
Dextrin [62] | |
Fibrin [63] | |
Zein [64] | |
Poly(hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) [65] | |
Synthetic polymers | Polyamide-6 [66] |
Polycaprolactone (PCL) [67] | |
Polylactic acid (PLA) [68] | |
Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) [69] | |
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) [70] | |
Poly(glycolic acid) (PGA) [71] | |
Poly(butylene succinate) [72] | |
Poly(anhydride-ester) [73] | |
Polyorthoesters [74] | |
Polycarbonate [75] | |
Polyanhydride [76] | |
Polyfumarate [77] | |
Polyphosphoester [78] | |
Polyphosphazenes [79] | |
Poly(urethane ester)urea [80] | |
Poly(L-lactide-co-caprolactone) (PLCL) [81] | |
Polyurethane (PU) [81] | |
Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) [82] |
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Flores-Rojas, G.G.; Gómez-Lazaro, B.; López-Saucedo, F.; Vera-Graziano, R.; Bucio, E.; Mendizábal, E. Electrospun Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering: A Review. Macromol 2023, 3, 524-553. https://doi.org/10.3390/macromol3030031
Flores-Rojas GG, Gómez-Lazaro B, López-Saucedo F, Vera-Graziano R, Bucio E, Mendizábal E. Electrospun Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering: A Review. Macromol. 2023; 3(3):524-553. https://doi.org/10.3390/macromol3030031
Chicago/Turabian StyleFlores-Rojas, Guadalupe Gabriel, Bélen Gómez-Lazaro, Felipe López-Saucedo, Ricardo Vera-Graziano, Emilio Bucio, and Eduardo Mendizábal. 2023. "Electrospun Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering: A Review" Macromol 3, no. 3: 524-553. https://doi.org/10.3390/macromol3030031