An Analysis of Key Factors Contributing to Apple Waste from the Perspective of Gardeners in Tehran Province, Iran

Abstract

The increasing waste of agricultural products is a significant threat to food security worldwide, including Iran. The horticultural sector faces a critical challenge with significant fruit waste, particularly apples, occurring at various supply chain stages. Coping with this problem and improving apple waste management at the garden level is important for achieving sustainable agriculture and food security goals. This study aimed to identify the main factors influencing apple waste from the viewpoint of apple gardeners in Tehran province, Iran, which plays a pivotal role in apple production and supplying the fruit to markets nationwide. The statistical population of the study was apple gardeners in Tehran province (N = 9310), out of which 188 people were selected as a sample by applying the Cochran formula. The data were collected through a researcher-made structured questionnaire developed for this study. Personal face-to-face interviews were conducted with the gardeners by adopting a cluster sampling technique. A panel judgment of the faculty members in the Department of Agricultural Management and Development at the University of Tehran confirmed the questionnaire’s validity. Its reliability was confirmed with a Cronbach’s alpha value above 0.7. The collected data were later analyzed by descriptive statistics measures and confirmatory factor analysis in SPSS and Smart PLS software. This study found that inefficient harvesting practices are the primary contributors to apple waste in Tehran, particularly due to improper handling and timing. It highlighted the need for better training, improved harvesting methods, and enhanced infrastructure. Addressing these factors through targeted interventions could significantly reduce apple waste, improving both economic viability and sustainability in the region’s apple production sector.

1. Introduction

The fruit and vegetable production sector globally accounts for the highest proportion of annual food loss and waste (FLW) [1]. These crops may experience both quantitative and qualitative losses from harvest to consumption, depending on the crops’ origin and seasonal conditions [2,3]. Food loss and waste represent significant social, economic, and environmental challenges that human society faces worldwide [4]. Approximately one-third of the global food supply of 1.3 billion tons is lost annually [5]. Food loss mostly occurs during the food supply chain’s production, handling, processing, and distribution phases, while the remainder occurs at the consumer or household level [6]. In contrast, in developed countries, food waste is more common in the later stages, such as food distribution systems and consumption [7]. Recent FAO data show that Iran ranks highest globally in agricultural and food waste, with waste levels projected to grow alongside production. Iranians throw away an amount of food equivalent to the combined total of ten European nations [8]. Specifically, Iran produces 25 million tons of food waste [9]. The distribution of waste across different stages of the supply chain in Iran, as well as in developing and developed countries, is detailed in Figure 1 [10,11].

1.1. Multidimensional Impacts of Food Loss and Waste

FLW is a multidimensional phenomenon that can be examined from different perspectives. To increase one’s understanding of its importance, it is essential to explore its environmental, economic, and social impacts. FLW at any stage of the supply chain leads not only to food loss but also to the wastes of vital resources like water, energy, and land expended in its cultivation, processing, packaging, transportation, and distribution. This wasted food production across the supply chain leads to 8–10% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions. It also accounts for 25–30% of all used agricultural water resources [12,13]. For example, discarding an apple means wasting the 70 L of water needed to cultivate it [14]. From an economic point of view, food loss costs the world economy over USD 1 trillion [12]. Moreover, food waste increases the costs related to production, distribution, and disposal by depleting valuable basic natural resources [15,16].

Thus, understanding the timing and causes behind food waste is crucial for developing effective solutions [17,18], which can contribute to more sustainable food systems and enhanced global food security [13,19,20]. Addressing this issue requires significant efforts to reduce food loss and waste, which has attracted considerable attention from various sectors and policymakers because of its complexity and the extensive interactions throughout the food supply chain.

In addition to reducing waste, using these important nutrients from apple pomace creates new opportunities for the development of healthy food and supplement products, establishing a sustainable cycle within the agricultural economy. A study found that the lack of scientific harvesting methods and the presence of numerous intermediaries in the supply chain are major factors contributing significantly to food loss [21]. Therefore, limited marketing abilities [22] and restricted access to advanced processing industries also contribute to the inefficiency in utilizing damaged or surplus apples, leading to significant waste. Collectively, these factors create a complex scenario that hinders the effective and sustainable investment in the apple production system, ultimately resulting in considerable wastage. In addition to its economic impact, FLW has a significant impact on society as it deepens poverty, threatens livelihoods, and compromises food security, with a trickle-down impact on the poor and their capacity to access essential resources. The horticultural sector plays a fundamental role in the success of poverty reduction strategies, particularly in developing countries [23,24]. Therefore, addressing the social dimensions of apple waste is crucial for enhancing the well-being of farmers. Effective management of horticultural crops, such as apples, can significantly reduce FLW and improve food security within communities.

1.2. Causes of Apple Waste and Loss

Some perishable horticultural crops, such as apples, are highly sensitive to spoilage if not managed wisely throughout their lifecycle, including growing, harvesting, handling, transportation, and storage stages [25]. A significant quantity of apple waste is generated along the entire value chain [26]. The production phase of apple cultivation encounters several challenges that lead to significant waste generation. These challenges stem from both pre-harvesting and post-harvesting processes, which contribute to the inefficiency of waste management systems.

Key factors contributing to apple loss during the pre-harvest stages include labor shortages, unprofitability of harvesting, and adverse weather conditions [27]. For example, climate variability plays a critical role in food waste [28], as fluctuations in weather patterns can lead to conditions that exacerbate the presence of pests and diseases, further diminishing crop yields [22]. Additionally, challenges related to horticultural practices, such as premature fruit drop, stem from environmental stresses and a lack of familiarity with modern agricultural techniques among gardeners as well as the application of unsustainable farming practices [29]. Hand-picking apples using unsuitable containers is a prevalent practice, leading to improper harvesting techniques that damage the fruit and contribute to increased waste during the harvest stage [30]. Failing to separate spoiled apples from healthy ones before packaging, combined with poor handling and neglecting to remove damaged fruit during harvest, can spoil entire batches [31]. Harvest timing is also crucial in ensuring high fruit quality for consumers. Both early and late harvesting can result in various negative effects that reduce the quality of the fruit [32]. Apple gardeners usually decide the harvesting time of apple fruits based on the intended market, which may lead to suboptimal timing in harvesting fresh produce, such as apples, that can experience significant damage during post-harvest transportation due to vibrations and shocks, often exacerbated by unsuitable transportation methods [33]. Research shows that deficient packaging not only reduces the storage life of apples but also provides insufficient protection against shocks during transportation [34]. The primary causes of loss during the post-harvest stage include poor transportation quality, decay, internal issues like scab, bruising, and consumer expectations [27]. A part of the problem at this stage is compounded by poor storage conditions and prolonged storage periods, causing the fruits to deteriorate. In contrast, imported apples generate less waste due to cold storage and chemical treatments [35].

1.3. Apple Production and Waste Management in Iran

On around 250,000 hectares of cultivated land, Iran grows 3 to 4 million tons of apples annually. The three top provinces to grow apples are Tehran, East Azerbaijan, and West Azerbaijan. Now, it ranks fourth in the world. Iran exported approximately 550,000 tons of apple trees worth USD 172 million to nations like Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq, India, and Russia from 21 March to 22 February 2023 [36]. Approximately 321,534 tons of apples are produced annually on 9627 hectares of orchards with an average production of 33,396 kg per hectare in Tehran province [37]. Apples are at the top of the province’s horticultural crops in terms of area cultivated and production [38]. The province’s share in the country’s apple production is around 11 percent, ranking third. Damavand County in Tehran province, with 215,000 tons of apple production, ranks second among the country’s counties, following Uromia county in West Azerbaijan province [39].

While some studies have considered the management of horticultural waste in Iran, no in-depth study has been conducted on the drivers or causes of apple waste. This research gap must be addressed to create evidence-based policies and strategies suitable for the efficient management of apple waste in Iran. Moreover, the study of factors affecting apple waste in Iran can highly promote sustainable farming practices, improve gardeners’ standards of living, conserve the environment, and boost food safety and nutrition. Furthermore, the study in this area can promote the development of creative ideas and technological innovation that not only meet the needs of the local populations and apple gardeners but also the broader agricultural community. Therefore, the goal of this study was to identify such factors at the initial stages of the apple supply chain (pre-harvesting to harvesting) from the gardeners’ point of view to explore insights beneficial for developing more effective apple waste management systems as well as fostering overall agricultural sustainability, particularly in apple production.

2. Materials and Methods

The statistical population of the research consisted of apple gardeners in Tehran province, which, according to the 2021 statistics, numbered 9310 gardeners [40]. The sample size was determined using Cochran’s formula (Equation (1)). For this purpose, a pilot study was conducted with 30 apple gardeners, and the standard deviation of their perception scores regarding waste management measured on a five-point Likert scale was calculated as 0.35. This research was conducted as a part of a broader investigation into apple waste management; therefore, the methodology for determining the sample size was based on the primary main study. Two indicators of an acceptable error level (d = 0.05) and a 95% confidence level were considered to determine the sample size, based on which a sample of 188 gardeners was determined. Finally, 186 apple gardeners were interviewed in the field survey.

$${\displaystyle \frac{N{t}^2{s}^2}{N{d}^2+t^2{s}^2}}={\displaystyle \frac{9310\ast {1.96}^2\ast {0.35}^2}{9310\ast {0.05}^2+{1.96}^2\ast {0.35}^2}}\approx 188$$

(1)

Sample size calculation using Cochran’s formula.

A cluster sampling method was applied to select and reach the samples, considering the geographic distribution of apple gardeners across various counties in Tehran province with different numbers of apple gardeners and production. Taking into account the official data of the Ministry of Agriculture Jihad regarding apple cultivation areas and the province’s agricultural divisions and zoning, the counties of Damavand, Firuzkuh, Shemiranat, and Malard were selected as the target areas for data collection. These counties were chosen because they are among the most significant areas for apple production in Tehran province, and contain different farming environments and orchard management systems [39]. By selecting these places, we could observe more diverse gardening methods. This ensured that our sample better represents all apple gardeners in the province, so our findings can apply to a larger group of gardeners.

In the present research, data were collected by a researcher-made questionnaire and interviews with apple gardeners. To construct the instrument for gathering data, to determine the primary factors impacting apple waste during the production phase, a comprehensive literature analysis was carried out. The identified factors were then classified into three main groups by the research team as pre-harvest, harvest, and post-harvest. This classification formed the foundation for the questionnaire’s design. Subsequently, some apple gardeners who participated in an early pre-test shared their feedback and ensured that the information under each area was understandable and appropriate. After that, the questionnaire underwent more testing to confirm its validity and reliability. The validity of the main scale of the questionnaire was confirmed through a content validity approach, where an expert judgment by some faculty members from the Department of Agricultural Management and Development at the University of Tehran confirmed it. The reliability of the inventory tool was also established using the internal consistency of the scale, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficient assessment being above 0.7. The data analysis was performed using both descriptive and inferential statistical approaches, through SPSS v25, Smart PLS v3, and Excel v2013 software. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was the main statistical tool used to examine the pre-developed conceptual model. This method is usually used to test how well the observed variables represent underlying latent constructs in a measurement model. It helps to validate the structure of a model by examining and confirming relationships between indicators and their respective factors.

3. Results

3.1. Demographic Characteristics of the Gardeners

According to the data, the respondents had an average age of 57.15 years, with a range from the youngest being 23 years old and the oldest being 85 years old. Most of the studied gardeners were older than 60 years of age. In terms of marital status, there were 93.8% of male and 6.2% of female respondents, respectively. Of those surveyed, 12.4% were single, and the majority were married. The respondents ranged widely in terms of their educational background, with 21.2 percent being illiterate and 31.2 percent having completed high school. The percentage of respondents who worked in horticulture as a second job was 57.6%. The respondents had 29 years of experience on average, of which 26 years were directly associated with apple production. Eighty-seven percent of those surveyed said they owned a garden when it came to land ownership.

3.2. Production and Supply Characteristics of the Gardeners

An analysis of production features indicated that the studied apple orchards averaged 4.89 hectares, while the overall orchard size of gardeners was 4.97 hectares on average. Moreover, an average of 1.5556 plots of land were owned by the respondents. In the research area, apple orchards yielded an average of about 25 tons per hectare, with approximately 560 kg consumed annually. The respondents revealed that it was less than 20 km from the orchard’s place to the closest major apple-selling hubs. This study also looked into the amount of time that passes between the delivery of the product and the receipt of payment. Figure 2 presents the time between product delivery and payment receipt (two people did not respond). As shown, only 7.9% of gardeners received immediate payment for the apples delivered to sales hubs, while the remaining gardeners experienced delays of up to six months before receiving their payments.

3.3. Factors Affecting Apple Waste in the Production Phase

Based on the literature review, the factors influencing apple waste at the production phase of the supply chain in Tehran province were classified into three main stages, viz., pre-harvesting, harvesting, and post-harvesting. In the present study, the perception of apple gardeners regarding apple waste at the production phase of the supply chain was assessed using a perceptual measurement model. This model, derived from an extensive review of the relevant literature, aimed to capture key factors influencing apple waste from the gardeners’ views. To validate and refine this model, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted, ensuring that the relationships between the theoretical constructs and their observed indicators align with gardeners’ actual opinions. By applying CFA, we can evaluate the structure of the model and its ability to accurately represent the experiences and perceptions of apple gardeners. The results provide insight into how well the model fits the data, based on which we can develop strategies and best practices to reduce apple waste at the production level.

All construct coefficients surpass the 0.7 threshold, indicating acceptable reliability according to an analysis of the model’s Cronbach alpha (α) and composite reliability (CR) values. To assess convergent validity, the average variance extracted (AVE) was calculated, with values of 0.5 or higher deemed acceptable. The results from the AVE criterion confirm that the constructs are differentiated, and the research model indicates strong convergent and discriminant validity.

The Fornell–Larcker index and cross-factor loadings were used to assess divergent validity. Divergent validity is established when the correlation of an index with its corresponding construct is higher than its correlations with other constructs. According to the results presented in

Table 1. Validity of measurement model using Fornell and Larcker index.

Stages	Stages
	Harvesting	Post-Harvesting	Pre-Harvesting
Harvesting	0.721	-	-
Post-Harvesting	0.351	0.715	-
Pre-Harvesting	0.337	0.310	0.721

Source: Own research findings.

, the diagonal values of the correlation matrix are consistently higher than the off-diagonal correlations, indicating that the selected measures for the constructs reveal the required divergent validity.

In cross-factor loadings, an assessment measure for the model, a construct is considered to have strong diagnostic validity when its associated indicators show higher loadings on its construct than on any other. As shown in

Table 2. Cross-factor loadings of the model for measuring factors affecting apple waste in the production phase.

Components	Symbol	Indicator	Pre-Harvesting Challenges	Insufficient Harvesting Practices	Inadequate Post-Harvest Management
Pre-Harvesting Challenges	Pre-Harv1	Climate variability	0.778	0.211	0.164
	Pre-Harv2	Presence of pests and diseases	0.707	0.117	0.142
	Pre-Harv3	Challenges related to horticultural practices	0.702	0.256	0.374
	Pre-Harv4	Premature fruit drop	0.642	0.184	0.119
	Pre-Harv5	Lack of familiarity with modern agricultural practices.	0.769	0.383	0.255
Insufficient Harvesting Practices	Harv1	Inadequate picking methods	0.274	0.587	0.405
	Harv2	Inappropriate picking of containers	0.175	0.713	0.258
	Harv3	Failure to separate spoiled apples before shipping or sending them to market	0.287	0.731	0.188
	Harv4	Neglecting to dispose of infected fruits before packing or storage	0.185	0.745	0.215
	Harv5	Poor handling practices during harvest	0.192	0.741	0.201
	Harv6	Suboptimal harvesting timing	0.322	0.789	0.237
Inadequate Post-Harvest Management	Pot-Harv1	Deficient packaging methods	0.280	0.343	0.741
	Pot-Harv2	Unsuitable transportation methods	0.132	0.291	0.654
	Pot-Harv3	Inadequate storage conditions	0.076	0.145	0.598
	Pot-Harv4	Extended storage durations	0.219	0.247	0.720
	Pot-Harv5	Limited marketing abilities	0.343	0.246	0.780
	Pot-Harv6	Restricted access to advanced processing industries	0.216	0.207	0.779

Source: Own research findings.

, the indicators for each construct present the highest loadings on their respective constructs, providing further evidence for the model’s discriminant validity.

After confirming the validity and reliability of the measurement model and ensuring that the indicators accurately represent the research concepts and variables, the next step involves assessing the quality of the structural model. As shown in

Table 3. Assessment of the structural model quality for determinants of apple waste during the production phase.

Determinants	Beta Coefficient	“t” Value	Sig.	AVE	α	CR
Pre-Harvesting Challenges	0.688	12.032	0.000	0.520	0.770	0.844
Insufficient Harvesting Practices	0.782	18.325	0.000	0.519	0.812	0.865
Inadequate Post-Harvest Management	0.760	13.409	0.000	0.512	0.808	0.862

Source: Own research findings.

, the path coefficients are statistically significant at the 0.05 level, with t-values exceeding the critical threshold of 1.96, which indicates that the relationships between the latent variables are strong and significant. This demonstrates that all determinants of apple waste during the production phase are supported by the data, further validating the conceptual model. The significance of path coefficients suggests that the hypothesized relationships between internal constructs are both meaningful and reliable, providing confidence in the overall model’s explanatory power.

The standard beta coefficients (path coefficients and corresponding t-values) presented in Figure 3 and Figure 4 indicate that factors related to the harvesting stage are the most significant contributors to apple waste during the production phase, with an overall path coefficient of 0.782 (t-value = 18.325). This suggests that the majority of waste at the production level occurs during the harvesting stage. Within this stage, the most critical factors influencing apple waste, based on factor loadings (FL), are “suboptimal harvesting timing” (FL = 0.789; t-value = 19.749), “neglecting to remove infected fruits before packing or storage” (FL = 0.745; t-value = 15.217), and “poor handling practices during harvest” (FL = 0.741; t-value = 11.202).

The second most significant factors influencing apple waste are associated with the post-harvest stage, which has a path coefficient of 0.760 (t-value = 13.409). Key factors in this stage include “limited marketing abilities” (FL = 0.780; t-value = 14.888), “restricted access to advanced processing industries” (FL = 0.779; t-value = 16.388), and “inadequate packaging methods” (FL = 0.741; t-value = 13.573).

Lastly, factors associated with the pre-harvest stage have the lowest path coefficient of 0.688 (t-value = 12.032) in affecting apple waste. Among these factors, the most influential are “climate variability” (FL of 0.778; t-value = 14.247), “lack of familiarity with modern agricultural practices” (FL of 0.769; t-value = 17.501), and “presence of pests and diseases” (FL of 0.707; t-value = 8.869). These results highlight that while pre-harvest factors do contribute to apple waste, their impact is less than the harvesting and post-harvest stages.

4. Discussion

The analysis of factors affecting apple waste in Tehran province highlights some critical issues throughout the production phase, with harvesting-related factors emerging as the primary contributors to waste, reflected by a substantial path coefficient of 0.782. This suggests that inefficient harvesting practices significantly exacerbate apple waste. A previous study demonstrated that poor handling resulted in a 93.3% incidence of bruising in Lebanese apples, highlighting the critical need for improved harvesting and post-harvest practices [41]. Inefficient harvesting practices were also identified as one of the key factors affecting apple waste in Zanjan Province, Iran. This study highlighted that harvesting problems contribute significantly to the overall waste, alongside post-harvesting and pre-harvesting natural issues [42]. Thus, it becomes pressing and necessary to set up fixed harvesting protocols in Tehran province to prevent losses and ensure conformity with good practices in apple production.

Implementing better training for harvesters and investing in appropriate equipment could greatly mitigate these issues, ensuring that more apples reach consumers in optimal condition [43]. Poor harvesting methods also contribute significantly to apple waste by leading to physical damage, improper handling, and inadequate timing of harvest. These factors will later increase post-harvest losses, ultimately affecting the overall supply chain efficiency and fruit quality in the agri-fresh produce sector [44]. Research indicated that traditional apple harvesting methods result in low efficiency, with pickers spending only 22% of their time on effective harvesting. This inefficiency may contribute to increased apple waste [45]. This inefficiency may contribute to increased apple waste. Addressing these inefficiencies through better training and technology adoption can help optimize harvesting methods, minimize waste, and improve the quality of apples reaching consumers while enhancing profitability for gardeners. By addressing those inefficiency issues through targeted training and technology adoptions, Tehran Province will position itself in terms of competitiveness in both domestic and export markets and thus reduce wastage of resources.

Key findings also indicate that suboptimal harvesting timing leads to increased waste, as apples harvested before they reach peak ripeness may not meet market standards and thus are often discarded. Furthermore, failing to remove infected fruits before packing or storage exacerbates the problem, as these compromised apples can cause spoilage among healthy fruits. Poor handling practices during the harvesting process also contribute to the physical damage of apples, further increasing waste. Addressing these issues is crucial for improving overall apple production efficiency in Tehran province. The challenges imply on the point of linkage between agricultural practice and economic viability of gardeners. This indicates that enhanced harvesting protocols would directly contribute to farmers’ income and investment capacity for apple production infrastructure. Implementing training and extension education programs for apple gardeners focused on improving harvesting techniques, using technologies and methods for timely identification and removal of infected fruits, and teaching gardeners about proper handling protocols could significantly reduce waste at this stage. By targeting these key areas, gardeners can enhance the sustainability of apple production, reduce economic losses, and improve the food security of gardeners’ families. Future research can focus on exploring the efficacy of such interventions and their potential impacts on waste reduction in other agricultural contexts. These findings are consistent with some previous research [30,46,47,48] that emphasizes the importance of timely harvesting and effective handling methods. Addressing these issues requires improvements in harvesting infrastructure and techniques, supported by the findings of Elik et al. [49] and Masood [50].

Technology and innovation have become the driving forces behind solutions to waste management problems in agricultural supply chains. Technologies of Industry 4.0 help smart waste management in agricultural supply chains through improved efficiency, recovering value from the waste; this is further supported by circular economy principles [45]. In apple production, waste-minimized technology across various activities encourages the valorization of apple waste through biological recovery of its by-products [51,52]. Smart packaging for fresh produce is another innovation to minimize waste due to relatively longer shelf lives and decay prevention [53]. In addition, tracking systems modernized with IoT technology reduce waste considerably by enabling real-time monitoring of produce inventory management [54]. All these technological interventions respond directly to major challenges in post-harvest handling, storage, and optimization of resources for sustainable agricultural supply chains. For Tehran Province, upgrading such technologies could transform apple waste into economic opportunities, while addressing environmental concerns related to agricultural waste disposal.

These findings demonstrated that similar to many developing nations, Iran faces considerable challenges in apple waste management in particular regarding technology gaps, limited cold chain infrastructures, and underdeveloped processing industries. It shows an apple waste of Tehran as it is sufficiently reflected by the overall characteristics of the Global South, where small-scale gardeners suffer climate change vulnerabilities and lack access to modern post-harvest solutions. This reveals that strategies and intervention by the gardeners and government could collectively be effective to minimize the severity of this issue and even turn a threat into an opportunity by rescuing or converting apple waste into valuable products.

The findings of this research also indicated critical factors contributing to apple waste during the post-harvest stage. With a path coefficient of 0.760, it is evident that limited marketing abilities, restricted access to advanced processing industries, and inadequate packaging methods significantly exacerbate waste. Poor post-harvest management practices lead to significant economic losses and increased waste, including apple pomace, which constitutes a nonedible portion of processed apples, exacerbating disposal issues and environmental pollution [55]. Meanwhile, implementing innovative processing techniques can further enhance the value of apple pomace, allowing for its utilization in various industries such as food production, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals, thus fostering sustainability and economic growth. It also points out that there is a need for post-harvest infrastructure and marketing linkages to cut down losses and add value to the apple supply chain in Tehran Province.

Limited marketing capabilities limit apple gardeners from effectively obtaining access to consumers, resulting in unsold apples that contribute to waste. Innovative marketing strategies, including digital platforms and partnerships with local retailers, are essential to enhance the visibility of the apple market and diversify sales channels. Additionally, the lack of access to modern processing facilities prevents apple gardeners from efficiently utilizing surplus or aesthetically imperfect apples for further processing into valuable secondary products. Expanding access to advanced processing technologies through apple gardeners’ organizations’ investments and cooperative models could significantly reduce waste by enabling the production of processed apples. Finally, inadequate packaging methods fail to maintain apple freshness and prolong its shelf life, leading to higher waste rates. Investing in improved packaging solutions, such as modified atmosphere packaging, is crucial for protecting apples during transport and storage. In summary, addressing these factors will promote sustainability and enhance the economic viability of apple gardeners, contributing to a more efficient food supply chain. Further research should explore specific interventions to minimize apple waste effectively. Therefore, strengthening marketing skills can reduce waste by eliminating intermediaries, strengthening the social networks of gardeners [56], and improving gardeners’ income, a point supported by Kasso and Bekele [47]. Some research revealed that the development of processing industries and adopting a contract farming approach add value to the product and aid in waste management [57,58,59]. Additionally, improper packaging contributes to waste through bruising and spoilage, highlighting the need for better packaging solutions in all stages of handling, transportation, and storage. This is consistent with the findings of [30,47,57,60,61].This implies that ensuring the improvement of market access and processing capacities to thereby mitigate inequalities between rural and urban areas in their economic opportunities and, consequently, potentially reduce food waste by province.

The findings of this research reveal that climate variability, unfamiliarity with modern agricultural practices, and pests and diseases are significant contributors to apple waste in the pre-harvest stage, evidenced by a path coefficient of 0.688. Climate change affects crop yields and fruit quality in different ways in the apple gardens of the studied region, resulting in unsustainable production that leads to increased waste. As extreme weather patterns become more common in the region, apple gardeners must adapt to these changes through better forecasting of weather conditions and by adopting resilient farming operations. Implementing climate-smart agricultural practices can help reduce the adverse impacts of unpredictable weather, thereby reducing apple waste. A lack of familiarity among apple gardeners with modern agricultural practices further exacerbates waste. Many of these gardeners, particularly in developing regions, may rely on traditional methods that are less efficient. Training and extension education programs on advanced techniques, such as precision farming and integrated pest management, are vital for enhancing productivity and minimizing waste. Pests and diseases are another significant challenge in the production phase, causing substantial losses of apples before harvest. Investing in the development and adoption of resistant apple varieties can help decrease these threats. Finally, addressing these pre-harvest challenges requires a combination of gardeners’ training, technological innovation, and climate adaptation strategies to improve apple yield and reduce waste, leading to a more sustainable apple production system. Further research needs to explore specific interventions targeting these areas. For Tehran Province, climate-smart agriculture needs to be integrated into policy frameworks in order to shield apple production from expanding environmental uncertainties.

Adverse climatic conditions can compromise the quality and reduce its marketability. Research by Asadi, Gholifar, and Akbari [30] and Kasso and Bekele [47] supports the notion that climate plays a crucial role in waste generation. The second critical factor, lack of familiarity with advanced agricultural techniques, is often due to insufficient training and knowledge among gardeners. This aligns with findings from Peykar Porsan, Shabanali Fami, Daneshvar Ameri, and Khodabakhshi [31] and Elik, Yanik, Istanbullu, Guzelsoy, Yavuz, and Gogus [49], which highlight the impact of traditional practices on waste generation. Pests and diseases also contribute to pre-harvest waste by affecting the appearance and quality of apples. As noted by Kasso and Bekele [47], timely and effective pest management is crucial for minimizing waste. This emphasizes that to cope with many of these issues, public–private partnerships play an important role in knowledge dissemination, as well as technology transfer to smallholder gardeners, ensuring that equitable access to sustainable practices is availed.

5. Conclusions

The primary causes for apples being discarded in Tehran were identified in this study and divided into three crucial phases: pre-harvest, harvest, and post-harvest. Mainly, poor harvesting, improper hand-picking, poor timing, and machinery of poor quality all fall into this category, indicating the need improved training of gardeners and the adoption of modern harvesting techniques. Poor post-harvest practices, such as improper packaging and limited farm-based processing capacity and storage, contributed significantly to further losses, all of which can be minimized through technologies that ensure better packaging, advanced storage conditions, and improved processing equipment availability. Unpredictable weather conditions, pest and disease infestations, and lack of innovative farming knowledge increased the risk at the pre-harvest stage, thus demanding climate-smart agriculture, integrated pest management, and the education of farmers. A comprehensive approach with the collaborative implementation of technological advancement, infrastructural improvement, and targeted extension services should ensure efficient utilization, waste reduction, and a sustainable apple production system in line with the food security and economic stability. In economic terms, improving gardeners’ marketing skills and access to market opportunities through training programs, as well as adopting cooperative models, will lessen reliance on intermediaries and increase profitability of apple gardeners. The establishment of local processing units at the farm level will enable better utilization of surplus and rotten apples for further revenue. Socially, awareness and capacity-building concerning timely harvest, handling efficiency, and pest control are equally important, along with securing a good grass-roots-based formulation of community networks for learning together and coping with the very stresses that put the apple crop at risk. Sustainably practices play a pivotal role, environmentally, in mitigating climate and pest induced losses (e.g., organic, integrated pest management, diversified crops). Also, management can reduce losses through planning harvests based on crop maturity and predicted weather, and their better management can reduce spoilage. In terms of organizational structures, investments in well-chosen and durable equipment and smart technologies, adopting a cold chain approach, appropriate containers, and improved transport and packing systems would go a long way towards damage reduction during transport, while climate-controlled storage rooms with a controlled atmosphere would allow for longer shelf life and quality retention. Better linkages to advanced processing plants would also enhance the value and marketability of non-fresh apples. The combination of all these proposed measures would consequently cope with the apple wastage in Tehran in terms of better socio-economic benefits and an improved environment.

This study implies that agricultural policymakers in Iran should prioritize localized agricultural extension services that offer hands-on training in modern harvesting, post-harvest handling, and sustainable farming practices to small-scale apple gardeners, particularly in Tehran province. Financial incentives, such as subsidies or low-interest loans, should be made available to gardeners’ cooperatives for investment in essential storage, processing, transportation, and distribution infrastructure such as cold storage, effective packaging systems, and digital marketing platforms. At the community level, a partnership between public and private groups to start small food processing businesses locally could be promoted. These businesses would take extra or lower-quality apples and turn them into products like juice, jam, or dried fruit. This not only cuts down on waste but also creates new job opportunities. We can also create demonstration gardens and organize programs where gardeners share information and learn the best sustainable farming methods from each other. Municipalities could also initiate food banking services, including “rescue harvest” campaigns to collect surplus apples for redistribution among poor households or processing, thereby minimizing losses. Therefore, through strategic polices and community action, Iran can significantly reduce apple waste, boost gardeners’ incomes, and enhance national food security and environmental sustainability. Aligning government support with grassroots innovation and actions will strengthen stability and performance across Iran’s apple supply chain and stimulate rural economies.

While this study provides key information on why apples go to waste in Tehran province, it has some limitations. This study was confined just to one area and mainly from what gardeners reported and experienced. To obtain broader insight into apple waste drivers, it is recommended to extend this study to other regions and stakeholders involved in the apple supply chain. This study primarily addressed types and causes of waste from the harvest to post-harvest stages, with less emphasis on the economic and environmental impacts. For future research, it is a good idea to study different areas over time and compare them to ensure these findings are accurate elsewhere. It is also important to understand how government interventions like waste control subsidies, market rule changes, and climate adaptation technologies affect apple waste directly and indirectly, as this could help in crafting better waste reduction strategies. With sudden spring frosts becoming increasingly frequent due to climate change, it is essential to study the long-term effects of climate change on apple production and waste. A study is necessary to model the procedure of developing a resilient apple gardening system. Economic instability has also played a major role in apple waste across the supply chain in recent years in Iran. Therefore, research should focus on finding ways to mitigate the effects of economic instability and inflation in the apple industry to minimize waste and losses.