Paradoxes of Aggravated Vulnerability, Marginalization, and Peril of Forest-Based Communities after Increasing Conservative Forest and Protected Areas in Nepal: A Policy Lesson on Land-Based Climate Change Mitigation
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Theories and Models for the Study
2.1. Institutional Theory of Marginalization
2.2. The Phenomena of Tradeoffs Outcomes: The Investigation Model
3. Study Data and Methods
- Major policy documents including national plans, laws statistics, acts, and maps;
- Fieldwork based on published materials of concerned authorities;
- Work progress reports;
- Materials published in journals and other authentic sources;
- Knowledge acquired by the authors while working in the community for forestry and other environmental fields in Nepal and abroad.
4. Outcomes of Conservation Interventions
4.1. Environment Conservation Outcomes
4.1.1. Forest Carbon Sequestration and GHG Emission Reduction
4.1.2. Protected Area Expansion and Recreation Site Development
5. Adverse Local Impacts
5.1. Natural Capital Dimension
5.1.1. Harm to Indigenous Species and Social-Ecological Systems
5.1.2. Loss of Invaluable Indigenous Farming Assets
5.1.3. Aggravated Fire Risk
5.2. Marginalization in the Economic Dimension
5.2.1. Loss of Land Space for Livelihood Security
5.2.2. National Economic Security Problem
5.2.3. Exacerbated Food Security Problem
5.3. Marginalization in a Social Dimension
5.3.1. Emigration Exodus
5.3.2. Institutionalized External Control and Exploitation
5.3.3. Suffering for Generations or Being Displaced for Good
5.4. Psychological Dimension
5.4.1. Mental and Emotional Stresses
5.4.2. Intensified Socially Oppressed State
6. Reinforcing Factors and Further Marginalization
7. Discussion
8. Conclusions and Limitations of the Study
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Country | Rural Population % | Per Capita (ha) | Percentage of the Total Land of the Nation | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Agricultural Land Total ^ | Arable Land | Forest Area | Protected Area | |||
Bhutan | 59.8 | 0.14 | 13.8 | 2.6 | 72.5 | 48.0 |
Nepal # | 80.7 | 0.08 | 28.8 # | 14.8 # | 45.3 | >23.6 α |
Sri Lanka * | 81.6 | 0.06 | 43.7 | 20.7 | 32.9 | 29.9 |
Pakistan * | 63.3 | 0.15 | 47.0 | 40.3 | 1.9 | 12.3 |
China * | 42.0 | 0.09 | 56.2 | 12.7 | 22.4 | 17.1 |
India * | 66.4 | 0.12 | 60.5 | 52.6 | 23.8 | 6.0 |
Bangladesh * | 64.1 | 0.05 | 70.4 | 59.4 | 11.0 | 4.6 |
Norway * | 18.1 | 0.16 | 2.7 | 2.2 | 33.2 | 17.0 |
Finland * | 14.7 | 0.41 | 7.5 | 7.4 | 73.1 | 14.9 |
Switzerland | 26.2 | 0.05 | 38.4 | 10.1 | 31.8 | 9.7 |
USA * | 17.8 | 0.47 | 44.4 | 16.7 | 33.9 | 13.0 |
Australia * | 14.1 | 1.90 | 47.6 | 6.0 | 16.3 | 17.0 |
Germany * | 22.7 | 0.15 | 48.0 | 34.0 | 37.7 | 23.7 |
Denmark * | 12.2 | 0.41 | 62.2 | 56.0 | 14.7 | 17.6 |
UK * | 30.8 | 0.09 | 70.8 | 24.9 | 13.1 | 28.2 |
New Zealand * | 13.5 | 0.10 | 40.5 | 2.2 | 38.6 | 32.6 |
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Dhakal, B.; Chand, N.; Shrestha, H.L.; Shrestha, A.; Dhakal, N.; Adhikari, B.; Shrestha, S.K.; Karki, K.B.; Bhandari, P. Paradoxes of Aggravated Vulnerability, Marginalization, and Peril of Forest-Based Communities after Increasing Conservative Forest and Protected Areas in Nepal: A Policy Lesson on Land-Based Climate Change Mitigation. World 2022, 3, 544-574. https://doi.org/10.3390/world3030030
Dhakal B, Chand N, Shrestha HL, Shrestha A, Dhakal N, Adhikari B, Shrestha SK, Karki KB, Bhandari P. Paradoxes of Aggravated Vulnerability, Marginalization, and Peril of Forest-Based Communities after Increasing Conservative Forest and Protected Areas in Nepal: A Policy Lesson on Land-Based Climate Change Mitigation. World. 2022; 3(3):544-574. https://doi.org/10.3390/world3030030
Chicago/Turabian StyleDhakal, Bhubaneswor, Narendra Chand, Him Lal Shrestha, Anita Shrestha, Nischal Dhakal, Bikash Adhikari, Shyam Krishna Shrestha, Krishna Bahadur Karki, and Padam Bhandari. 2022. "Paradoxes of Aggravated Vulnerability, Marginalization, and Peril of Forest-Based Communities after Increasing Conservative Forest and Protected Areas in Nepal: A Policy Lesson on Land-Based Climate Change Mitigation" World 3, no. 3: 544-574. https://doi.org/10.3390/world3030030