Volunteer Motivation in Firefighting Organisations: A Case of the Slovenian Firefighters Association

Abstract

Volunteer firefighters play an important role in the provision of emergency services in Slovenia, where most of firefighters work on a voluntary basis. In many countries, however, volunteering is in decline due to demographic, social and organisational constraints. To maintain this important function, it is important to understand the motivations that drive individuals to join and stay in the volunteer fire service. This study examines the motivational factors that influence Slovenian volunteer firefighters, with a particular focus on fire service support, leadership practices and demographic differences. A quantitative survey was conducted among 244 volunteer firefighters from 22 fire brigades. The data were analysed using descriptive statistics, t-tests, Spearman’s rank correlation and binary logistic regression. The results show that many volunteer firefighters are motivated by the challenge of working under stress and in situations of controlled risk. However, this motivation decreases with age, as older members show less interest in adrenaline-driven tasks. Men show a greater preference for action-oriented tasks, including emergency response, equipment handling and physical engagement. In contrast, women place slightly more emphasis on social connections within the brigade. Volunteers who feel included in decision-making processes and experience cooperative, participative leadership are more likely to remain engaged. Those who are motivated by physical activity are more likely to stay, while those who are primarily motivated by social recognition or status are more likely to leave. These findings contribute to the literature on volunteering in high-risk contexts. Tailored recruitment and retention strategies that take into account age, gender and leadership dynamics can help fire services build more engaged and sustainable volunteer teams.

1. Introduction

Volunteering is defined as unpaid, non-compulsory work performed for the benefit of others and the common good [1]. It is a socially useful activity that improves the quality of life of individuals and communities and complements formal systems of paid work. Volunteers contribute to both societal well-being and their own professional development through altruism, self-development and socialising [1]. The frequency of volunteering is influenced by personal interests, life circumstances and organisational contexts [2,3]. While some people only volunteer occasionally, others make a long-term commitment through structured tasks in organisations such as NGOs and fire brigades [2].

Volunteer firefighters are an important part of emergency services worldwide, especially in rural or decentralised areas where professional resources are limited [4]. According to the International Association of Fire and Rescue Services (CTIF), almost 90% of the 15.4 million firefighters in 66 countries, representing about one-fifth of the world’s population, are volunteers. Countries such as Germany, Austria, France, Slovenia and the United States rely heavily on volunteer fire brigades, indicating the widespread importance of this role [5].

Despite their importance, the number of volunteer firefighters is declining in many countries, probably due to an ageing population, migration to cities, increased work demands and changing societal expectations [4,6]. This trend poses an urgent challenge for public institutions and non-profit organisations that need to adapt their recruitment and retention strategies to the changing demographic and social realities [6]. While some studies have looked at the motivations for volunteering, few systematically examine how these motivations evolve or how they differ by regional and demographic factors [7,8].

Slovenia offers a unique and instructive setting for such a study. The country relies more than most others in Europe on volunteer firefighters. With over 1300 volunteer fire brigades, approximately 160,000 registered members and around 45,000 active firefighters, volunteers form the backbone of the Slovenian fire service and civil defence. In stark contrast, there are only about 900 to 1000 professional firefighters nationwide. The Slovenian Volunteering Act legally defines volunteering as an unpaid, socially useful activity that promotes a humane and just society [9]. It is important to understand, both nationally and internationally, what motivates such a large proportion of the population to take on this demanding and risky task.

In light of growing concerns about the sustainability of volunteer service across Europe, this study examines the motivations and leadership dynamics that influence the retention of volunteer firefighters in Slovenia [4,7]. In particular, it examines whether people are attracted to the fire service because of a personal preference for high-risk environments and whether leadership practices influence their decision to stay or quit. These findings are crucial for developing effective human resource strategies and ensuring the long-term viability of volunteer rescue services in similarly structured systems around the world [8].

Using binary logistic regression, this study identifies the most important factors influencing volunteer firefighters’ considerations to leave their organisation. It contributes to the wider literature by examining the interplay between motivation, stress and leadership in volunteer-led, high-risk services and offers valuable implications for theory and practice.

1.1. A Literature Review and the Formulation of Hypotheses

Volunteer firefighting requires expertise, training and a significant time commitment—factors that pose a challenge for volunteer recruitment and retention, especially in Slovenia, where many volunteers combine this task with full-time employment. In order to understand what motivates people to commit to this challenging task, both personal and contextual influences need to be analysed.

Theories of volunteer motivation generally fall into two broad categories. One emphasises personal, intrinsic characteristics and subjective meaning [1], while the other applies a rational cost–benefit analysis to the decision to volunteer. The functional theory integrates both approaches and identifies six primary motivations: protection, altruistic values, helping others, professional development, social connections and personal development [10]. These dimensions form the basis for analysing the specific motivations of volunteer firefighters.

Personal motivations such as altruism, determination and a willingness to take risks are often cited as key factors for volunteers’ involvement in firefighting. Research shows that many people are attracted to the adrenaline-driven environment of the emergency services and value the opportunity to make a meaningful contribution under pressure [11,12].

Socio-emotional selectivity theory also points to age-related differences in motivation, with older people prioritising emotional well-being and personal development [13]. A three-stage model of volunteering—pre-engagement, active participation and individual change—emphasises mutual benefit and skill development throughout the volunteer’s life cycle [14].

Given the emotional and physical challenges of firefighting, it is particularly likely that individuals who find stress and controlled risk attractive will volunteer. This tendency is consistent with findings suggesting that such individuals are motivated by the risks involved. We have therefore formulated the following hypothesis: H₁: Volunteer firefighters report that opportunities for stress and controlled risk are significant motivational factors when deciding to join the brigade.

The social environment—including family, friends and peers—has a significant influence on the decision to volunteer and on long-term commitment. Family traditions, community ties and interpersonal relationships provide emotional support and practical encouragement [11,15,16,17]. For many, volunteering is a way of expressing personal values, gaining social acceptance and build meaningful relationships.

Gender plays a particularly important role in shaping this dynamic. Research shows that women are more likely to cite relational and altruistic motives, including compassion and connection to community, while men are more likely to prioritise skill-building and adventure [3,17,18,19]. These gender-specific patterns should be considered when developing targeted recruitment strategies. Therefore, we formulated the following hypothesis: H₂: Motivational factors vary by gender: women emphasise altruism and social connections, whereas men emphasise adventure, adrenaline and professional-development opportunities.

In addition, strong interpersonal relationships within the brigade—such as camaraderie and peer support—act as key motivators. These social bonds have been shown to increase commitment and resilience in a highly stressful environment for volunteers [10,15]. On the basis of this evidence, we propose the following hypothesis: H₃: Among all motives for joining, perceived support from current brigade members ranks highest.

Leadership style, organisational climate and internal communication have a significant influence on the motivation and commitment of volunteers. Volunteers are more likely to stay involved if they feel recognised, included and empowered by supportive leadership [16,20,21,22]. A shared mission, mutual respect and structured training contribute to both satisfaction and retention.

Transformational leadership—where leaders serve as role models, consider individual values and encourage personal development—is particularly effective in fostering motivation and commitment to the organisation [6,16,23]. These elements are especially important in the high-risk, team-based environment of firefighting. Accordingly, we propose the following hypothesis: H₄: Volunteer firefighters who perceive strong interpersonal relationships, cooperative leadership and a positive organisational climate report higher levels of ongoing motivation.

Leadership decisions also influence the turnover of volunteers. Autocratic leadership styles and status-oriented motives are associated with higher volunteer turnover, while cooperative leadership and development-oriented motives promote volunteer retention. Based on this, we propose the following hypothesis: H₅: Intention to leave increases when leaders make unilateral decisions and volunteers are primarily motivated by social status gains; intention to stay increases when leaders engage volunteers collaboratively and when training opportunities are a primary motivator.

Age is another important variable that influences the motivation of volunteers. Younger volunteers are often attracted to adrenaline-driven tasks, hands-on activities and technical challenges, while older volunteers tend to value social interaction, mentoring opportunities and involvement in decision-making processes [20,24,25,26].

Despite these differences, there are common motivating factors across all age groups, such as service to the community and safety goals. However, the reasons for leaving the organisation vary: younger members often cite professional pressures or waning enthusiasm, while older individuals more often cite physical limitations or family obligations [3,6,16,18,24]. Accordingly, we propose the following hypothesis: H₆: Motivational factors vary by age: younger volunteers are more motivated by adrenaline-driven tasks, equipment handling and hands-on firefighting; older volunteers are more motivated by social factors and involvement in decision-making.

In order to understand the specifics of Slovenian fire brigades, the following section describes the role of volunteer fire brigades in Slovenia.

1.2. The Role of Volunteer Fire Brigades in Slovenia and Comparison with Selected Countries

In Slovenia, volunteering plays a crucial role in promoting solidarity, integration and active participation [27]. The Slovenian strategy for the development of non-governmental organisations and volunteering from 2018 underlines the value of structured volunteering for community resilience, youth development and social cohesion [28].

Firefighting in Slovenia is a central part of the national civil defence system, which is regulated by the Act on Protection against Natural and Other Disasters. This system includes professional, volunteer and civil defence units responsible for first aid, firefighting and emergency response. It includes partnerships between the fire brigades, police, armed forces and social services, which are coordinated at both the state and municipal level [9].

Firefighting is officially organised as a public service in all municipalities and is supported by both local and national authorities [29]. Volunteer fire brigades operate under the Slovenian Fire Brigade Association and perform tasks related to protection, prevention and public safety [30]. These fire brigades are financed by various sources, including the state budget, insurance premiums, membership fees, donations and the Fire Brigade Fund, which supports the purchase of vehicles and equipment. Their tasks and duties are legally defined by the Fire Services Act and the Fire Protection Act and ensure a structured and responsible operation.

Children from the age of 7 can join the volunteer fire brigade in Slovenia with their parents’ consent, although they do not take part in actual firefighting operations. Instead, they participate in structured youth departments managed by the Slovenian Firefighters Association [31]. These youth programmes focus on education, teamwork, age-appropriate training simulations, competitions and community involvement. Activities are conducted in uniform and are designed to instil discipline, civic duty and teamwork in a supportive and age-appropriate environment.

Participation is governed by internal rules and is based on the legal requirements of the Fire Service Act, which defines age-appropriate roles and responsibilities. These programmes serve as preparation for later operational activities in adulthood.

Importantly, early involvement in the fire brigades helps to internalise values and develop a strong sense of identity and belonging. By involving children at a formative age, these programmes build long-term loyalty, create networks of like-minded people and familiarise young people with the structure and expectations of emergency service roles. Many adult volunteers began as youth members, suggesting that early socialisation is an important motivating factor for long-term recruitment and retention. This is consistent with general motivation theory, which emphasises the role of early experiences in the formation of prosocial identity and civic engagement.

An overview of volunteer fire service systems in other countries reveals both common structures and unique practices that shape youth engagement and organisational models.

Germany has one of the most established systems of volunteer fire brigades in the world, with around 95% of firefighters working on a voluntary basis. The system operates at a municipal level but is coordinated at a national level by the German Fire Service Association (DFV). The youth fire brigade, aged between 10 and 18, plays a central role in training future firefighters through structured training, discipline and emergency preparedness. Funding is largely provided by local governments, supplemented by insurance and federal funding [5,32].

Austria relies even more heavily on volunteers, as 99% of firefighters are active in regional and national volunteer organisations. The youth fire service, which begins at the age of 10, offers a formal pathway into the adult emergency services through training, competitions and mentorship. Financial support comes from municipalities, public events, sponsors and national grants [5,33].

In France, approximately 79% of firefighters are volunteers working in a system organised at both the departmental and national level. The Jeunes sapeurs-pompiers programme introduces children from the age of 11 to structured training and civic engagement leading to either continued voluntary or professional service. The programme is primarily funded by the municipalities, with additional national support [5,34].

In the USA, there is a decentralised system where approximately 70% of fire services are run by volunteers, especially in rural areas. Youth firefighter and cadet programmes vary by state and often begin between the ages of 14 and 16. The primary sources of funding are local governments, community fundraisers and federal support through the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) [5,35].

The Slovenian volunteer fire service model has important similarities with other European systems, particularly in terms of early involvement strategies and a structured transition into operational roles. The unique practice of involving young people in the fire service from the age of 7—earlier than in most other countries—provides a unique model for developing long-term motivation. By instilling civic values, group identity and discipline at a young age, the Slovenian model strengthens both recruitment and long-term retention.

While the legal and operational frameworks ensure accountability and coordination, the integration of youth programmes and community bonding appear to be most important for maintaining motivation. This suggests that long-term strategies for sustaining volunteering—particularly in high-risk and high-commitment services such as the fire service—benefit from early, structured engagement and clear development pathways.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design and Procedure

In this study, a cross-sectional survey was conducted to examine motivational factors and perceptions of leadership among volunteer firefighters in Slovenia. Prior to data collection, approval was obtained from the leadership of a selected firefighters’ association in a Slovenian region. This association was selected based on its size (1768 registered volunteer firefighters aged 18 years or older), its representation of semi-rural and rural fire brigades and the willingness of its leadership to support the research.

The survey was conducted in January 2024. A digital link to the questionnaire was emailed to the leaders of all 22 volunteer fire brigades within the selected association, with the request that it be forwarded to all active volunteer firefighters. Due to the anonymous nature of the survey and the indirect method of distribution, the exact response rate could not be calculated. One limitation of this method is the possible underrepresentation of older firefighters, who are less likely to take part in online surveys.

The inclusion criteria stipulated that participants had to be active volunteer firefighters aged 18 years or older. No other exclusion criteria were applied.

Informed consent was obtained electronically prior to the start of the questionnaire. Participants were informed of the purpose of the study, their right to withdraw their participation at any time and the anonymity and confidentiality of their responses.

2.2. Questionnaire Development

The questionnaire was developed based on previously validated measures from several studies, including Hyde et al. [6], Clary et al. [10], Lantz and Runefors [11], Rosca et al. [12], Mayr [21] and Gazzale [36]. These sources provided scales dealing with functional motivation, risk tolerance, leadership and factors of commitment in volunteering. The items were selected according to their theoretical relevance and adapted to the context of the fire service in Slovenia.

All items were translated from English into Slovenian using a standardised back-translation procedure to ensure accuracy and conceptual equivalence [37].

The final instrument consisted of three main sections:

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Demographic information, including age, gender, years of service and current role in the fire service.

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General motivations for volunteering, which were derived from the functional motivation model.

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Volunteer-firefighter-specific motivations and experiences, including stress and risk-related engagement, perceptions of leadership and reasons for leaving.

Motivation was assessed using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (“not at all important”) to 5 (“very important”). Participants rated the factors that influence their decision to volunteer (e.g., family, friends, personal development, community service). These items were taken from the Volunteer Functions Inventory (VFI) [10] and related measures [6].

To examine structural patterns of motivation, 11 items were grouped into three dimensions consistent with the theoretical framework presented in the literature review:

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Thrill and operational engagement: adrenaline, interventions and use of equipment (α = 0.744).

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Community and social ties: service to the community, gratitude, camaraderie and social status (α = 0.516).

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Personal development and responsibility: staying in shape, training, administrative tasks and self-competence (α = 0.723).

Although the internal consistency ranged from poor to acceptable, individual items were analysed separately to preserve the specificity of each factor.

A separate set of items targeted thrill- and stress-related motivations, such as the following:

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“I enjoy adrenaline-driven activities that involve risk.”

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“I enjoy adrenaline-driven activities that involve danger.”

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“I prefer to function under pressure and perform well in stressful situations.”

These were also rated on a 5-point Likert scale and resulted in a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.859, indicating high internal consistency. However, they were also analysed individually to determine different motivational factors.

Organisational and social influences were assessed on the basis of agreement with the statements on leadership behaviour, organisational climate and team cohesion. These items covered aspects such as community service, peer support, social recognition, physical fitness and administrative workload.

These were taken from previous studies in which group cohesion, burnout and volunteer retention were analysed [12].

The leadership-specific items were analysed independently rather than as a unified scale. The five leadership items achieved a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.823, indicating strong internal consistency.

Respondents were asked to indicate possible reasons for leaving the fire service, including time demands, interpersonal conflicts, health concerns, limited training and inadequate protective equipment.

As these were binary variables (1 = selected, 0 = not selected), no internal reliability was calculated.

Overall, the individual-level analysis approach ensured that the unique contribution of each variable to motivation and retention could be assessed without losing detail in the overall results.

2.3. Data Analysis

The responses to the survey were first checked for completeness and consistency. All data were numerically coded and analysed using SPSS 25.0 and Python 3.11.5 (sklearn library 1.6.1) [38].

The statistical methods included descriptive analysis of demographic characteristics, the Mann–Whitney U-test to analyse gender differences in motivational factors (non-normal distribution) and repeated-measures ANOVA and post hoc tests to compare motivational strength between factors.

These analyses enabled the identification of significant trends in volunteer firefighter motivation, which has implications for firefighter retention and recruitment strategies.

3. Results

3.1. Participants

Based on the number of firefighters in the selected association, the estimated response rate was around 14%. In addition, not all volunteer firefighters completed the survey.

A total of 244 volunteer firefighters aged 18 years or older (out of 355 who started the survey) answered all questions, so 244 respondents were included in the analysis. Of the respondents, 21.4% were female and 78.6% were male. In terms of age, 9.9% were under 20 years old, 14.5% were between 21 and 30 years old, 26.0% were between 31 and 40 years old, 27.5% were between 41 and 50 years old, 13.0% were between 51 and 60 years old, and 9.1% were over 60 years old, representing the age group with the fewest participants.

3.2. Testing Hypothesis H₁

Hypothesis H₁—volunteer firefighters report that opportunities for stress and controlled risk are significant motivational factors when deciding to join the brigade—was tested using a binomial test with a test value of 0.5 (50.0%). The results indicate that 45% of respondents agreed (value 4) and 15.6% strongly agreed (value 5) that they enjoy working in high-stress and controlled-risk environments. In contrast, 14.7% disagreed (value 2), and 0.9% strongly disagreed (value 1), while 23.9% were neutral (value 3) regarding this aspect of their work. These results show that more than 50% of participants agreed with the statement that they enjoy adrenaline-driven activities that involve risk (64.1%; p = 0.002) and prefer to work under pressure and perform well in stressful situations (63.4%; p = 0.003). However, less than 50% of participants agreed with the statement that they like adrenaline-driven activities that involve danger (48.1%; p = 0.727).

3.3. Testing Hypothesis H₂

Hypothesis H₂ regarding how motivational factors vary by gender—women emphasise altruism and social connections, whereas men emphasise adventure, adrenaline and professional-development opportunities—was further analysed.

Although the Mann–Whitney U-test works with ranks and not with raw data, mean values were given for both groups for descriptive purposes. Mean scores provide a more intuitive and interpretable measure of central tendency and allow for easier comparison of motivational levels between men and women. This approach helps to visualise the extent of the differences and complements the statistical significance resulting from the Mann–Whitney U-test. The means for analysed motivational factors for both genders, together with p-values from the Mann–Whitney test, are shown in Figure 1.

The results show gender-specific differences in the motivational factors of volunteer firefighters. On average, men showed a significantly higher interest in interventions (4.33 vs. 3.87, p = 0.01), physical activity (4.15 vs. 3.78, p = 0.028), adrenaline-driven activities (3.96 vs. 3.39, p = 0.013) and working with equipment (4.30 vs. 3.35, p < 0.001). These findings align with previous studies suggesting that male volunteers often report higher motivation for physically demanding and adrenaline-driven tasks in emergency services.

3.4. Testing Hypothesis H₃

Hypothesis H₃: Among all motives for joining, perceived support from current brigade members ranks highest.

The results of the ANOVA test show that there were statistically significant differences between the motivating factors (F_5,000,645 = 39.26, p < 0.001).

After the significant overall effect observed in the ANOVA, a post hoc analysis was performed using Tukey’s HSD test to determine which specific differences in motivating factors were significant. Missing values were replaced by the median. The

Table 1. Post hoc test.

Factor 1	Factor 2	Mean Difference	Adjusted p-Value
Parents	Brigade	−0.592	<0.001 ***
Partner	Brigade	−1.008	<0.001 ***
Children	Brigade	−0.946	<0.001 ***
Brigade	Current members	1.100	<0.001 ***
Friends	Brigade	−0.554	<0.001 ***
Friends	Current members	0.546	<0.001 ***
Parents	Current members	0.508	<0.001 ***
Partner	Friends	−0.454	0.0032 **
Parents	Partner	0.416	0.0098 **
Children	Friends	−0.392	0.0183 *
Parents	Children	0.354	0.0469 *

Statistical significance levels: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

contains only the significant pairwise comparisons between the groups with p-values of less than 0.05.

The comparison groups highlight factors that influence the decision to volunteer for the fire service, focussing on social influences such as family, friends and the fire brigade. The table shows how different social groups (parents, partner, children, fire brigade, friends and current members) influence this decision. The “mean difference” indicates how much more or less influential one factor is compared to another, while the “adjusted p-value” indicates the statistical significance.

The fire brigade consistently exerted a strong influence on the decision to volunteer, which outweighs the other factors. For example, parents had a significantly lower influence than the fire brigade (mean difference = −0.5923, p < 0.001), as did partners (mean difference = −1.0077, p < 0.001) and friends (mean difference = −0.5538, p = 0.001). This indicates that the role of the fire brigade is decisive for the decision to volunteer.

Interestingly, the current members of the fire brigade had an even stronger influence within the fire brigade than the fire brigade itself (mean difference = 1.1, p < 0.001). The influence of children did not differ significantly from that of current members (mean difference = 0.1538, p = 0.8107).

3.5. Testing Hypothesis H₄

In order to test Hypothesis H₄—volunteer firefighters who perceive strong interpersonal relationships, cooperative leadership and a positive organisational climate report higher levels of ongoing motivation—the following analysis was conducted. Hypothesis H₄ was tested using a t-test on a sample with a test value of 3.5. The t-test was appropriate because the survey question directly asked respondents to assess how each of these factors increased their perceived motivation.

The survey contained questions designed to assess how interpersonal relationships, organisational climate and cooperative leadership influence the motivation to volunteer. To determine whether the average level of agreement for each factor was significantly higher than the mean of 3.5 (indicating general agreement), a t-test was conducted on a sample with a test value of 3.5.

A test value of 3.5 was chosen for the one-sample t-test because it represents the midpoint between “neutral” (3) and “agree” (4) on the 1 to 5 scale used in the survey. The choice of 3.5 as the test value was intended to determine whether respondents, on average, agree or disagree with the influence of interpersonal relationships, organisational climate and cooperative leadership on their motivation to volunteer. In this way, it was possible to determine whether the respondents were statistically significantly more likely to agree with the positive influence of these factors than to be neutral or negative. The results are shown in

Table 2. One-sample t-test (test value 3.5).

	t	df	p-Value (1-Tailed)	Average Difference
interpersonal relationships	18.681	244	<0.001 ***	1.077
organisational climate	14.428	244	<0.001 ***	0.946
cooperative leadership	17.196	244	<0.001 ***	1.015

Statistical significance levels: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

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The results of the one-sample t-test show that the mean values of the factors interpersonal relationships, organisational climate and cooperative leadership were statistically significantly higher than 3.5. It was therefore concluded that interpersonal relationships, cooperative leadership and a positive organisational climate significantly influence volunteer motivation.

3.6. Testing Hypothesis H₅

Further analysis focussed on the factors that influence whether an individual volunteer firefighter would consider leaving the association. For this purpose, a binary logistic regression was used with a dependent variable asking about this intention. Hypothesis H₅—intention to leave increases when leaders make unilateral decisions and volunteers are primarily motivated by social status gains; intention to stay increases when leaders engage volunteers collaboratively and when training opportunities are a primary motivator—was analysed.

The independent variables were selected from three groups, namely the group relating to the incident leader’s problem solving approach, the group relating to statements about the leader and the motivational factors for volunteer firefighters. Age was included in the model as a control variable. To identify a locally optimal subset of independent variables, we tested all possible combinations of independent variables. Due to the large number of possible subsets, we limited each set to a maximum of four independent variables to manage computational complexity and avoid excessive model complexity.

In addition, at least one variable from each content set had to be included. Two models were identified in which a significant effect was observed for at least three variables. The two models are very similar, so that model with the slightly higher pseudo R² (=0.18) was selected for presentation. The results are shown in

Table 3. Logistic regression.

Variable	B	SE	Z	p-Value
Intercept	4.013	2.500	1.605	0.108
Leader: Solves problems independently	1.328	0.663	2.004	0.045 *
Leader: Leaves problem solving to other members	0.193	1.360	0.142	0.887
Leader: Also shares responsibility for completed tasks with subordinate members	0.261	0.379	0.689	0.491
Leader: I co-operate with the leader on decisions that affect my work	−1.129	0.506	−2.232	0.026 *
Motivation: Exercises	−0.953	0.418	−2.276	0.023 *
Motivation: Higher status in society	0.751	0.332	2.264	0.024 *
Motivation: This is the only thing I’m good at	−0.520	0.294	−1.769	0.077
Age	0.230	0.184	1.247	0.212

Statistical significance levels: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

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Logistic regression analysis revealed that the perception that leaders solve problems independently rather than collaboratively is a strong predictor of firefighters considering leaving (B = 1.328, p = 0.045). A positive coefficient indicates that firefighters who observe or experience leaders solving problems alone without involving others are more likely to consider leaving the fire service. This could indicate that they prefer more inclusive or collaborative decision-making processes in the fire service, where input and co-operation are valued.

Conversely, co-operation with leaders in decision-making proved to be a protective factor against resignation (B = −1.129, p = 0.026). Firefighters who felt they had a say in decisions affecting their work were significantly less likely to consider leaving the fire service. This emphasises the importance of participative leadership and the role of inclusivity in fostering a sense of commitment and engagement among volunteers. When firefighters feel that their contribution is valued and that they can participate in decisions that affect their work, they are more likely to remain engaged and committed to the fire service.

Motivational factors also played an important role in whether firefighters would consider leaving the fire service. Those motivated by higher social status were more likely to consider leaving (B = 0.751, p = 0.024), possibly reflecting unmet expectations regarding recognition or prestige. On the other hand, those who were motivated by a desire for higher social status were more likely to consider leaving the fire service, possibly indicating that they would look for other opportunities if the role did not fulfil their expectations of status (B = −1.129, p = 0.026). These findings emphasise the importance of understanding and addressing the different motivations and preferences of volunteer firefighters in order to improve retention and engagement with the fire service.

The analysis showed that age was not a significant predictor of whether volunteer firefighters considered leaving (B = 0.230, p = 0.212). The coefficient for age was positive but not statistically significant, suggesting that there is no clear or consistent relationship between a firefighter’s age and the likelihood that they would consider leaving the fire service. This suggests that factors other than age have a greater influence on whether a firefighter stays or leaves. In other words, younger and older firefighters are equally likely to stay or leave the fire service, and age alone is not a determining factor in the decision to stay or leave the fire service.

3.7. Testing Hypothesis H₆

Further analyses were conducted to examine the differences between younger and older volunteer firefighters, particularly concerning Hypothesis H₅: Motivational factors vary by age: younger volunteers are more motivated by adrenaline-driven tasks, equipment handling, and hands-on firefighting; older volunteers are more motivated by social factors and involvement in decision-making. This hypothesis states that the desire for adrenaline-driven activities decreases over time, that the main motivators for continued involvement change and that the reasons for leaving the fire brigade also vary with age.

To test this hypothesis, content variables were selected from five categories: motivational factors, tasks in the fire service, adrenaline and stressful situations, motivators for continued engagement and reasons for leaving. For each category, Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient with age and the corresponding p-value were calculated. The results presented focus on the content variables that showed statistically significant correlations with age (α = 0.05).

The results table shows the correlations between various motivational factors, tasks and reasons for leaving the volunteer fire service in relation to age. Only significant correlations are included, whereby the variables are organised according to their p-value for the sake of clarity. The results are shown in

Table 4. Spearman’s rank correlation.

Set	Variable	Spearman rho	p-Value
Adrenaline and stressful situations	I like adrenaline-driven activities that involve risk	−0.437	<0.001 ***
Motivating factors	Adrenaline	−0.432	<0.001 ***
Adrenalin and stressful situations	I like adrenaline-driven activities that involve danger	−0.390	<0.001 ***
Motivating factors	Working with equipment (tools, vehicles…)	−0.341	<0.001 ***
Firefighting tasks	Fire brigade interventions	−0.295	0.002 **
Motivating factors	Exercises	−0.282	0.003 **
Motivating people	Friends	−0.255	0.008 **
Reasons for leaving	Incompetent leadership	−0.529	0.017 *
Selected statements	When I solve problems, I consult with other members	0.236	0.018 *
Motivating people	Partner	0.215	0.027 *
Selected statements	I trust the decisions of the leader	−0.201	0.045 *
Reasons for leaving	Lack of exercises	−0.449	0.047 *
Reasons for leaving	Too few trainings	−0.449	0.047 *

Statistical significance levels: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

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The strongest negative correlations were observed between age and enjoyment of adrenaline-driven activities correlated with risk and danger, suggesting that older members tend to have less interest in high-risk, adrenaline-driven activities. Other notable negative correlations include a lower correlation with incompetent leadership (rho = −0.529, p = 0.017) and the importance of adrenaline and working with equipment (rho = −0.431, p < 0.001), suggesting that older members may favour stability and safety over these aspects.

Positive correlations, although weaker, were found with the importance of consulting other members in solving problems (rho = 0.236, p = 0.018) and the role of a partner as a motivator, suggesting the kind of social and relational factors that become more significant with age. Confidence in leadership decisions shows a moderate but significant negative correlation (rho = 0.201, p = 0.045), as does lack of practice and training, suggesting that older members may be more critical of insufficient training opportunities.

4. Discussion

This study deepens our understanding of the factors that influence the decision to join and stay in a volunteer fire service. The findings are consistent with the existing literature and provide important insights into the motivations and challenges of volunteer firefighters.

The results suggest that a significant number of participants are comfortable in high-stress situations and enjoy the adrenaline-driven aspects of firefighting. This supports Hypothesis 1 and is consistent with the findings of Rosca et al. [20] and Okun and Schultz [17], who observed that individuals who are attracted to adrenaline and challenge are more likely to volunteer for high-risk tasks. However, this study also shows that participants do not necessarily favour perceived danger, a finding that is consistent with Wilson’s [1] theory on volunteering, which emphasises personality traits such as risk tolerance and stress management.

This study also examines how the motivation of volunteers develops with age, particularly with regard to initial enthusiasm, the factors for long-term commitment and the reasons for leaving. The results support Hypothesis 6 and suggest that members place more value on experience, relationships and education as they age, which is consistent with the observations of McLennan and Birch [39] and Perrot and Blenkarn [26]. This shift supports Carstensen et al.’s [13] theory of socio-emotional selectivity, which states that people prefer emotional fulfilment and close relationships as they age.

With regard to Hypothesis 2, this study found significant gender-specific differences in the motivational factors. Men scored higher on operational and adrenaline-driven motivations such as participating in interventions, handling equipment and physical activity, confirming this part of the hypothesis. However, the expectation that women are primarily motivated by service to the community and social ties was not supported by statistically significant results.

This result suggests that female volunteers are similarly motivated by a combination of factors rather than primarily by social or relational motives. Generalisations based solely on gender should therefore be treated with caution. These results indicate that Hypothesis 2 was only partially confirmed and illustrate the diversity and complexity of motivations between the genders.

These results emphasise the need for more differentiated gender-specific recruitment and retention strategies. For example, recruitment materials aimed at men could emphasise the technical and challenging aspects of firefighting, such as equipment handling, tactical training and real-time emergency decision-making. For the women in this study, while community service and social connection were not significantly higher, designing assignments that promote collaboration, integration and leadership development may be more appealing. Programmes could include peer mentoring networks, flexible volunteering options and leadership programmes tailored to a variety of motivational factors across genders.

Socio-emotional Selectivity Theory (SST) [13] states that people prioritise emotional well-being and meaningful relationships with increasing age. This is consistent with the findings that older firefighters prioritise stability, safety and interpersonal relationships over adrenaline-driven activities. SST’s focus on social factors is reflected in older firefighters’ preference for collaborative decision-making and inclusive leadership, which reduces the risk of resignation. Collaborative problem solving and participative leadership strengthen commitment, while a lack of training or autocratic leadership foster dissatisfaction. Although age was not a statistically significant predictor of resignation in the regression model, it was confirmed that motivations associated with emotional and social goals were more relevant for older participants, partially supporting Hypothesis 5.

These findings highlight the influence of age and gender on volunteer motivation and emphasise the need for tailored leadership and engagement strategies that value inclusivity, collaboration and community relations in the stressful context of firefighting. Furthermore, correlation analysis shows that interest in high-risk, adrenaline-driven tasks decreases with age, while older members value social and relational factors such as teamwork and support from partners. This is consistent with the findings of Malinen and Mankkinen [19], who emphasise the role of social relationships in volunteer recruitment, and contrasts with Malinen et al. [18], who highlight skill development and camaraderie as the main motives for joining.

This study underlines the influence of organisational climate and internal support on volunteer motivation and the importance of leadership in creating a supportive environment. These findings are consistent with research by Gazzale [36] and Sandrin et al. [24] on the role of leadership in volunteer retention. Francis and Jones [14] also found that strong interpersonal relationships and supportive leadership increase satisfaction, with younger volunteers particularly valuing a sense of belonging and a teamwork-focussed environment that encourages engagement.

The logistic regression analysis confirmed Hypothesis 5 and showed that leadership style was a significant predictor of resignation. Leaders who foster inclusivity, encourage shared decision-making and maintain a positive organisational climate can significantly enhance volunteer engagement and retention. These findings are consistent with those of Gazzale [36] and Haski-Leventhal and McLeigh [25], who emphasise the importance of community engagement. Research by Francis and Jones [15] and Okun and Schultz [17] emphasises the role of thrill, community and social connectedness in maintaining commitment, while Hustinx and Lammertyn [6] and Hyde et al. [4] support the notion that motivation changes with age.

Recognising these changes can help in the development of recruitment and retention strategies, for example, by involving older members in mentoring roles. Malinen et al. [15] found gender differences in motivation, with female volunteers citing social factors and male volunteers emphasising values, suggesting the need for age- and gender-specific strategies to promote a socially connected, inclusive fire service.

The results emphasise that transformational and cooperative leadership are critical for volunteer fire services in addressing the unique challenges of high-risk environments. Leaders who promote inclusivity, shared decision-making and a positive organisational climate can enhance engagement and retention. By showing appreciation and respect for volunteers, leaders can strengthen bonds, bridge divides and improve engagement. Simple gestures, autonomy and shared decision-making increase volunteer motivation and feelings of appreciation. Other leadership styles, such as servant, democratic or authentic leadership, can also be beneficial in certain contexts.

As fire services adapt to modern, flexible approaches to volunteering, they must address changing societal expectations where free time is increasingly limited. Leaders must maintain a supportive environment that encourages engagement and quality at all levels of the organisation, which requires sustained effort to maintain a positive climate.

In light of these findings, the following section summarises the main contributions of this study, its theoretical significance, practical implications and directions for future research.

5. Conclusions

This study provides new insights into how personal and organisational factors influence the motivation and retention of volunteer firefighters in Slovenia. Key determinants include leadership style, age-related motivational changes and the influence of peer support. These findings offer both theoretical contributions and practical strategies for maintaining volunteer fire brigades.

Beyond its contextual focus, this study offers original contributions by developing a new questionnaire tailored to the fire service environment and applying a regression-based approach to identify predictors of volunteer retention. A new questionnaire was developed based on findings from the scientific literature. This study uniquely combines research on personal motivations with the specific context of a high-stress environment such as the fire service. Using a binary logistic regression analysis, this study identified the key determinants of volunteer firefighter retention, filling an important gap in the existing literature. These findings contribute to the theory of volunteer motivation and have significant implications for recruitment and retention strategies in fire service organisations. Furthermore, this study builds on the existing literature by examining volunteer motivation in high-risk environments and exploring the impact of fire service-specific leadership and management practices. From a scientific perspective, it advances the theoretical understanding of volunteering by integrating the theory of functional motivation and the socio-emotional selectivity theory. This study provides empirical evidence that personal motivations are shaped by both individual characteristics and the organisational environment. This dual approach enriches the literature on volunteering and provides a basis for future research.

In practice, the results of this study have significant implications for fire service management and human resource strategies. By identifying key factors that influence volunteer motivation and attrition, fire service organisations can develop targeted volunteer recruitment and retention strategies that are aligned with actual volunteer motivations. Improving leadership practices and fostering a supportive organisational climate can increase volunteer satisfaction and engagement, ultimately leading to better service delivery in emergency situations.

Strong leadership and positive interpersonal relationships are essential to sustaining volunteer engagement, and a supportive organisational climate further strengthens this engagement. Understanding the different motivations and challenges faced by volunteers enables organisations to better tailor their approaches to members’ needs, leading to more effective and committed volunteering.

These findings support targeted recruitment strategies for volunteer firefighters and have wider implications for the recruitment in similarly challenging contexts. Fire services should consider implementing training programmes or leadership development initiatives. This research also highlights the crucial but under-researched role of leadership and management practices in influencing volunteer satisfaction and retention.

Despite its contributions, this study has several limitations. One notable limitation is the fact that it is based on an online survey. In addition, the anonymity of the survey limited the researchers’ ability to accurately track response rates, which may have biassed the data. Furthermore, this study was conducted in a specific geographical context (Slovenia), which could limit the generalisability of the results to other regions or countries with different cultural or organisational dynamics in volunteer fire brigades.

Future research could extend this study by examining the motivations and retention factors of volunteer firefighters in different cultural contexts. Longitudinal studies could shed light on how motivations evolve over time and evaluate the effectiveness of specific measures to improve retention in volunteer fire services. In addition, qualitative methods such as interviews or focus groups could provide deeper insights into the personal experiences of volunteer firefighters, particularly in relation to leadership and organisational climate.