Postharvest Handling Practices of Sweet Orange Marketers in Benue State, Nigeria ^†

Abstract

Successful marketing of fresh fruits requires careful attention to the details involved in postharvest handling (PH), which protects fruit’s quality and nutritive and economic value. This study assessed the PH practices of sweet orange marketers in Benue State. Six (6) major orange markets were purposively selected. Thereafter, a total of 104 marketers were randomly sampled. The data were collected using an interview schedule and analysed using the frequencies, percentages, means, Chi-squares, and Pearson’s Product Moment Correlations at α_0.05. The knowledge of PH practices and the level of PH practice utilisation were high. Marketers’ age (r = −0.220, p < 0.05), the use of sacks for packaging (χ² = 23.314, p < 0.01), knowledge of PH (r = 0.272, p < 0.01), and attitudinal disposition towards PH (r = 0.492, p < 0.01) significantly influence the utilisation of PH practices. This study recommends the generation of awareness and sensitisation among marketers by horticultural crop institutions on improved preservation and packaging methods for sweet oranges.

1. Introduction

Sweet orange (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck) is a citrus fruit notable for its wide cultivation and consumption globally. Sweet oranges account for about 50% of the citruses produced worldwide [1]. The global sweet orange production was 47.40 million metric tons in the 2023/2024 marketing season, 46.88 million metric tons in the 2022/2023 marketing season, and 50.32 million metric tons in the 2021/2022 marketing season [2], indicating a downward trend in production from the 2022/2023 to 2021/2022 marketing seasons and then a minor increase in production in the 2023/2024 marketing season.

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Brazil is the global leader in sweet orange production [3]. In the 2023/2024 marketing year, Brazil led globally in its orange production, with an annual output of about 16.5 million metric tons within the global production of fresh oranges for this marketing season [4]. Thus, Brazil’s sweet orange production accounts for about 30% of the sweet oranges produced globally. There was a decline in sweet orange production in the 2023/2024 marketing year (48.82 million metric tons) compared to that in the 2022/2023 marketing year (50.41 million metric tons). Declines in orange production in countries such as Brazil and the United States of America have been attributed to bacterial disease [1]. In Africa, the FAO statistics in 2021 revealed that the leading producer of oranges was Egypt, followed by South Africa, Algeria, Morocco, and Ghana [5]. Over the years, Egypt has been among the top 10 producers of oranges in the world [3,4,6], accounting for about 8% of global orange production.

Sweet oranges are also cultivated in Nigeria, where the climate is favourable for growing. Tropical rainforest and guinea savannah ecological zones are the most suitable for sweet orange cultivation in Nigeria [7]. Its annual production of sweet oranges is nearly 930,000 tons, cultivated on approximately 3 million hectares of land in Nigeria [8]. In Nigeria, Benue State is the leading producer of sweet oranges [9,10]. In 2019, an average production of 22,164.6 bags of sweet oranges was reported, out of which 16,672.3 bags were sold and 5492.3 bags were lost in selected LGAs in Benue State, Nigeria; the post-harvest losses of sweet oranges can be as high as 21–30 percent [11]. In a study conducted among roadside orange sellers in Oyo State, Nigeria, the losses incurred were reportedly up to 14.2% [12]. Previous research [8] noted that sweet oranges contribute to the development of agriculture and the nation’s economy. However, the maximisation of their potential is limited by challenges such as pests, diseases, inadequate capital, price volatility, and climate change, among others [7,8]. Sweet oranges are common fruits consumed widely by the populace in Nigeria, especially because of their sweet taste and health benefits, contributing to nutrition security. The common varieties grown in Benue State, Nigeria, are mostly Ibadan Sweet and Valencia [11].

Sweet oranges are important sources of vitamins, minerals, and dietary fibre, and they play vital roles in improving human nutritional status. The vitamins and flavonoids present in citrus fruits such as sweet oranges enhance their nutritional and healing properties [13]. Sweet oranges are essential to an individual’s normal body growth and development. They are very nutritious and low in calories and aid in lowering the risk of many health conditions [14]. Sweet orange fruits are quite sweet because they contain high concentrations of fruit sugar. Sweet oranges are usually harvested when they are fully ripe or half-ripe. Orange juice is rich in vitamin C and antioxidants; hence, sweet orange fruits have health benefits. Sweet oranges are characterised by having a distinctive flavour and being a good source of carbohydrates and many B vitamins, minerals, and biologically active phytochemicals, such as carotenoids and flavonoids, which provide provitamin A and purported antioxidant benefits [15].

Fresh fruits like sweet oranges are inherently perishable and are prone to deterioration, especially when injured, which limits the optimisation of their health benefits by the human body. Their deterioration after harvest contributes to most of this loss and quality degradation, thus contributing to both cost and nutritive losses [13]. Due to the highly perishable nature of sweet oranges, losses are incurred during postharvest handling and their distribution from production areas to consumption centres. The losses in citrus fruits can be as high as 30% of the total output and can reach up to 50% in low-income countries [13]. Hence, successful marketing of sweet oranges requires careful attention to the details involved in postharvest handling, which can protect their quality and nutritive and economic value and assure food safety. Good postharvest handling practices will reduce postharvest losses, improve customers’ satisfaction with the produce, attract good prices, and increase marketers’ incomes.

Efforts to reduce postharvest losses in perishable fruits such as sweet oranges are crucial to avoiding wastage and also reducing the cost of preventing food losses. The causes of post-harvest losses of sweet oranges in Nigeria include mechanical damage, weather conditions, physiological deterioration, inadequate handling skills, insect and pest infestations, poor storage, and poor market patronage [16,17]. In Ethiopia, fruit losses are caused by factors such as the harvesting techniques, improper storage, improper packaging methods, and improper transportation/marketing [18]. Likewise, in Zimbabwe, the contributing factors to postharvest losses include poor production practices, pest infestations, diseases, poor storage facilities, and poor physical infrastructure [19].

Thus, proper postharvest handling of sweet oranges is of great importance to reducing losses and ensuring their continuous availability and increases in marketers’ incomes. The level of profit that will be realised by marketers from oranges sold is, to an extent, dependent on their employment of good postharvest handling practices. A viable orange marketing enterprise is crucial to the sustainability of crop production, hence the need to examine the postharvest handling practices of sweet orange marketers. During postharvest handling, oranges must be sorted to remove bruised or diseased fruits and avoid contamination of wholesome oranges. Also, protecting oranges from the sun and rain is crucial to enhancing their market value. How oranges are loaded and offloaded from vehicles is equally important.

Previous studies among sweet orange marketers in Benue State, Nigeria, have focused on postharvest losses [10,20]. However, empirical data on the postharvest handling practices of sweet orange marketers in Benue State, Nigeria, is sparse. Hence, this study examined the postharvest handling practices (preservation, sorting, packaging, transportation, and marketing) of sweet orange marketers in this study area. Also, the sweet orange marketers’ knowledge of postharvest handling practices and their attitudinal dispositions were examined. This study hypothesised that the sweet orange marketers’ knowledge and attitudes would affect their utilisation of postharvest handling practices.

2. Materials and Methods

Benue is a state in Central Nigeria, with its capital situated in Makurdi. Its geographic coordinates are a longitude 7°47′ and 10°0′ east and a latitude 6°25′ and 8°8′ north. The state shares a common boundary with the Republic of Cameroon in the southeast. Benue State is acclaimed to be the nation’s “food basket” because of its rich and diverse agricultural produce, which includes oranges, mangoes, pears, garden eggs, yams, rice, beans, cassava, potatoes, and maize, among others. The population of this study was sweet orange marketers in Benue State, Nigeria. Major sweet orange markets were purposively selected in Benue State. The selected markets were the Ihugh, Gboko, Lessel, Ikyobo, Aliade, and Korinya markets, with populations of 104, 118, 30, 26, 36, and 33 sweet orange marketers, respectively, giving a total of 347 marketers from the sampled markets. Using simple random sampling, 30% (104) of the marketers were selected. The marketers in the selected sweet orange markets mainly buy oranges in bulk from sweet orange farmers and transport them to different states/cities in Nigeria such as Abuja, Kano, Kaduna, Portharcourt, Jos, Onitsha, Lagos, Maiduguri, Lafia, Aba, Benin, Ibadan, Bauchi, Sokoto, Yobe, and Zaria, among others (this was discovered during the data collection). The sampled sweet orange marketers in this study mainly sell them wholesale to other marketers in these states/cities because they deal with a large volume of oranges. A well-structured interview schedule was used for the data collection.

Knowledge of postharvest handling practices was assessed by presenting a list of 17 knowledge items consisting of positive and negative statements to the sweet orange marketers. This was measured using a 2-point scale of true and false, with a score of 1 assigned to the correct response and 0 to the wrong response. The marketers’ knowledge scores were added up, and their mean scores were computed. The minimum and maximum knowledge scores were 13 and 16, respectively, and the mean score was 14.72 ± 0.79. The mean score was used to categorise respondents as either having a very high or a high knowledge level of postharvest handling. This categorisation was based on the fact that out of the 17 knowledge items presented to the sweet orange marketers, the minimum score was 13, indicating that all the marketers had a high knowledge of postharvest handling practices.

Attitudes towards postharvest handling were assessed by presenting a list of 10 attitudinal items consisting of positive and negative statements to the sweet orange marketers. This was measured using a 5-point Likert-type scale of Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree, with scores of 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 assigned, respectively, for positively worded statements and the reverse for negatively worded statements. The marketers’ scores on their attitudes were added up, and the mean score was computed. The minimum and maximum attitudinal scores were 33 and 46, respectively, and the mean score was 39.53 ± 3.57. The mean score was used to categorise the marketers as either having a favourable or unfavourable attitude towards postharvest handling.

Postharvest sweet orange handling practices were assessed by presenting the marketers with a list of 20 items on their postharvest handling practices. They were measured using a 3-point scale of always, sometimes, and never, with scores of 2, 1, and 0 assigned, respectively, indicating the frequency of use of postharvest handling practices. The marketers’ scores on their postharvest handling practices were added up, and the mean score was computed. The minimum and maximum postharvest handling practice utilisation scores were 14 and 26, respectively, and the mean score was 19.91 ± 2.54. The mean score was used to categorise the respondents as either having a high or low level of utilisation of postharvest handling practices.

The descriptive statistics used for the data analysis were the frequency, percentages, means, and standard deviation, and the inferential statistics used to analyse the data collected were Chi-squares and Pearson’s Product Moment Correlations.

3. Results

3.1. The Personal Characteristics of Sweet Orange Marketers

Table 1. Distribution of marketers based on personal characteristics (n = 104).

Variable	Freq.	%	Mean	Std. Dev.
Age (in years)
<31	12	11.5	39.89	7.56
31–40	42	40.4
41–50	40	38.5
51–60	10	9.6
Gender
Male	99	95.2
Female	5	4.8
Marital status
Single	11	10.6
Married	89	85.6
Widowed	3	2.9
Separated	1	1.0
Education
No formal education	4	3.8
Secondary education	15	14.4
Tertiary education	85	81.7
Primary occupation
Farming	10	9.6
Trading	94	90.4
Secondary occupation *
None	46	44.2
Farming	40	38.5
Trading	7	6.7
Crop processing	4	3.8
Renting out taxis and motorcycles	4	3.8
Driving	3	2.9
Cycling	3	2.9
Transport	2	1.9

* multiple response set.

presents the distribution of the marketers based on their personal characteristics. The results show that the average age of the marketers was 39.89 ± 7.56 years. Most of the marketers were within the age range of 31–40 years (40.4%) and 41–50 years (38.5%). It was found that the marketers were mostly male (95.2%), the majority were married (85.6%), and very few (10.6%) were single. It was found that most of the marketers (96.1%) had formal education, while very few (3.8%) had no formal education. The majority of the marketers were primarily engaged in trading (90.4%), while a few marketers were primarily engaged in farming (9.6%). More than half of the marketers (55.8%) had secondary occupations, while 44.2% had no secondary occupation. The main secondary occupation of the marketers was farming (38.5%).

3.2. The Enterprise Characteristics of the Marketers

Table 2. Distribution of marketers based on other enterprise characteristics (n = 104).

Variables	Freq	%	Mean	SD
Marketing experience
<11	52	50.0	12.29	6.54
11–20	40	38.5
21–30	11	10.6
31–40	1	1.0
Sources of capital *
Personal savings	104	100.0
Cooperatives	4	3.8
Customers	4	3.8
Friends	25	24.0
Microfinance banks	7	6.7
Labour employed
Hired	104	100.0
Maturity stage at which you purchased oranges *
Mature green	94	90.4
Fully ripe	91	87.5
Half-ripe	84	80.8
Time of transport of oranges *
Morning	104	100.0
Afternoon	104	100.0
Evening	104	100.0
Overnight	104	100.0
Anytime	104	100.0
Means of transportation of oranges *
911 lorries	91	87.5
Trailers	29	27.9
Motorcycles	43	41.3
Faka	45	43.3
12-tyre trucks	32	30.8
Containers	15	14.4
J5 vans	19	18.3
Point of purchase of oranges
While still on the trees	104	100.0
Preservation of oranges
Under shade of trees	104	100.0
Processing of oranges
No	104	100.0
Marketing outlets
Urban markets	104	100.0
Category of buyers
Wholesalers	104	100.0
Method of loading
Without packaging material	14	13.5
With packaging material	20	19.2
Both (with and without packaging material)	70	67.3
Packaging material used
Sack bags	90	86.5

* Multiple-response.

shows the distribution of the marketers based on their enterprise characteristics. The findings from this study show that the average marketing experience was 12.29 ± 6.54 years. Personal savings (100.0%) were a source of capital for all of the marketers, while nearly a quarter (24.0%) of the marketers’ source of capital was friends. Very few of the marketers’ sources of capital were microfinance banks (6.7%), cooperatives (3.8%), or customers (3.8%). The results showed that all of the marketers used hired labour (100.0%). Furthermore, the maturity stages at which oranges were purchased were the mature green (90.4%), fully ripe (87.5%), and half-ripe (80.8%) stages. The marketers transport oranges at any time of the day, whether morning (100.0%), afternoon (100.0%), evening (100.0%), or night (100.0%). The major vehicles used for transportation were 911 lorries (87.5%). Other means of transportation were faka (43.3%), motorcycles (41.3%), trailers (27.9%), 12-tyre trucks (30.8%), containers (14.4%), and J5 vans (18.3%). The marketers purchase the oranges while they are still on the trees (100.0%). Oranges are preserved under tree shade (100.0%), and the marketers do not process the oranges into any products (100.0%). All of the marketers patronised urban markets (100.0%) and sold them to wholesalers (100.0%). Oranges are transported by the marketers with and without (67.3%) packaging materials. Sack bags (86.5%) were used as the packaging materials.

3.3. The Marketers’ Knowledge on Postharvest Handling

The distribution of the marketers based on their knowledge of postharvest handling is shown in

Table 3. The distribution of the marketers based on their knowledge of postharvest handling.

S/N	Knowledge Statements	Correct Responses
		F	%
1	A breakdown of vehicles while moving oranges to the market increases orange deterioration	104	100.0
2	After harvest, oranges should be protected from the sun	104	100.0
3	Sorting of diseased oranges helps prevent contamination of healthy oranges	104	100.0
4	Oranges should be prevented from getting bruised	104	100.0
5	The high cost of transportation contributes to postharvest loss	76	73.1
6	Damaged oranges should not be packed with good ones	104	100.0
7	Poor ventilation during storage encourages deterioration	104	100.0
8	Packing mature and immature oranges together is not good	104	100.0
9	Poor loading contributes to postharvest loss	104	100.0
10	Packaging oranges properly prevents mechanical damage	13	12.5
11	Poor field sanitation promotes the spread of bacterial diseases	104	100.0
12	Oranges lose value due to mechanical damage during the marketing period	104	100.0
13	Produce loses value due to exposure to high temperatures if it cannot be sold right away	104	100.0
14	The use of shade is important for oranges	101	97.1
15	Injuries to oranges increase water loss in oranges	103	99.0
16	Throwing packaged oranges in sacks can result in bursting of the packaging materials	90	86.5
17	Oranges become overripe or soften when exposed to heat	101	97.1

. The results of this study show that all of the marketers (100.0%) knew that orange deterioration can be caused by vehicle breakdowns; sorting bruised oranges helps prevent contamination; protecting oranges from the sun after harvesting is good; orange bruising is not good; separating damaged oranges from good ones when packaging is important; poor ventilation results in orange deterioration during storage; mature and immature oranges should not be packed together; poor loading can lead to postharvest losses; bacterial diseases can be spread through poor field sanitation; and damaged oranges have no market value. Also, the majority of the marketers knew that throwing packaged oranges (in sacks) around can lead to bursting of the packaging materials (86.5%) and that oranges become overripe or softened when they are exposed to heat (97.1%).

3.4. Level of Knowledge of Postharvest Handling and Loss

The results in

Table 4. The distribution of the marketers based on their level of knowledge.

Knowledge	Freq.	%	Minimum	Maximum	Mean	S Dev.
High (<mean)	41	39.4	13.00	16.00	14.72	0.79
Very high (≥mean)	63	60.6

reveal that the majority of the marketers (60.6%) had a very high level of knowledge on postharvest handling of sweet oranges, while 39.4% of the marketers had a high level of knowledge on postharvest handling.

3.5. The Marketers’ Attitudes Towards Postharvest Handling

According to the results in

Table 5. Percentage distribution of marketers based on attitudes towards postharvest handling.

S/N	Attitudinal Statements	SA	A	U	D	SD	Mean
1	Preserving oranges under shade is simply not needed	1.0	5.8	2.9	67.3	23.1	4.06
2	It is necessary to pack oranges in well-ventilated materials	26.9	44.2	27.9	0.0	1.0	3.96
3	Postharvest handling of oranges is a waste of time	0.0	0.0	0.0	59.6	40.4	4.40
4	Sorting of damaged oranges is not just an important exercise	0.0	1.0	0.0	44.2	54.8	4.53
5	Washing of oranges may not be necessary	90.4	8.7	0.0	0.0	1.0	1.13
6	Damage caused during postharvest handling renders oranges liable to attacks by decay	77.9	14.4	0.0	1.0	6.7	4.56
7	Any type of packaging material is suitable for oranges	0.0	0.0	60.5	33.7	5.8	3.45
8	Good sanitation of the collection centre does not matter	0.0	0.0	0.0	41.3	58.7	4.59
9	Careful handling of oranges may not necessarily prevent spoilage/contamination	1.0	1.9	0.0	20.2	76.9	4.70
10	Packaging of oranges is necessary to protect the produce against rough handling during loading and unloading	41.3	35.6	20.2	2.9	0.0	4.15

SA = Strongly Agree, A = Agree, U = Undecided, D = Disagree, and SD = Strongly Disagree.

, the marketers’ responses to attitudinal statements are shown. The majority of the marketers agreed that preservation of oranges under shade is good (90.4%) and well-ventilated materials should be used to pack oranges (71.1%), and all of the marketers (100.0%) agreed that postharvest handling of oranges is very important. Sorting damaged oranges was considered an important exercise (99.0%), and most of the marketers (92.3%) attested that damaged oranges are prone to attacks by decay mechanisms. All of the marketers (100.0%) agreed that it is important to ensure good sanitation of the collection centres to maintain fruit’s quality and market and economic value. Furthermore, about 40.0% of the marketers believed that oranges cannot be packaged with any type of packaging material, while 60.5% were indifferent. Most of the marketers (97.1%) believed that careful handling of oranges would prevent spoilage, and 76.9% agreed that oranges should be packaged to protect them from being roughly handled. Almost all of the marketers (99.0%) opined that washing oranges may not be necessary.

3.6. Levels of Attitudes Towards Postharvest Handling

The results, as presented in

Table 6. The distribution of the marketers based on their attitudinal dispositions.

Attitudinal Disposition	Freq.	%	Minimum	Maximum	Mean	S Dev.
Favourable (≥mean)	48	46.2	33.00	46.00	39.53	3.57
Unfavourable (<mean)	56	53.8

, reveal the marketers’ attitudes. Based on the attitudinal mean values computed, the marketers were categorised as either having a favourable or an unfavourable level of attitudinal disposition towards postharvest handling. The findings from this study show that 53.8% of the marketers had an unfavourable attitudinal disposition towards postharvest handling, while 46.2% had a favourable attitudinal disposition.

3.7. Postharvest Handling Practices of the Orange Marketers

Table 7. The distribution of the marketers based on their postharvest handling practices.

S/N	Postharvest Handling Practices	Frequency of Use			Mean
		Always	Sometimes	Never
	Preservation
1	Store in a cold room	0.0	0.0	100.0	0.00
2	Store under shade of trees	76.9	23.1	0.0	1.77
3	Store in sheds/tents	0.0	0.0	100.0	0.00
	Sorting
4	By bruises	15.7	68.5	15.7	1.00
5	By stage of ripeness	12.0	71.3	16.7	0.95
6	By size	13.9	70.4	15.7	0.98
	Packaging
7	Sort oranges before packaging/loading	4.3	95.7	0.0	1.04
8	Use packaging materials for oranges before loading	24.7	75.3	0.0	1.26
9	Package orange immediately after harvesting	2.2	97.8	0.0	1.02
10	Ensure packaging materials are clean to prevent contamination	100.0	0.0	0.0	2.00
11	Package only good-quality oranges	43.0	57.0	0.0	1.45
	Transportation
12	Avoid overloading the vehicle	13.0	87.0	0.0	1.13
13	Ensure the load is stable	88.9	11.1	0.0	1.88
14	Keep vehicles under shade when loading to minimise heat	1.9	1.9	96.3	0.04
15	Avoid throwing produce from the vehicle when loading and offloading	20.4	67.6	12.0	1.09
	Marketing
16	Sell oranges even if the price is not favourable	63.9	36.1	0.0	1.65
17	Sort diseased oranges before marketing	25.0	61.1	13.9	1.12
18	Sell oranges the same day on which they arrive at the market	0.0	26.9	73.1	0.24
19	Do not leave oranges for days before selling	24.1	75.9	0.0	1.25
20	Always keep collection centres clean	0.0	0.9	99.1	1.01

shows the distribution of the marketers based on their frequency of use of postharvest handling practices. It was found that 76.9% of the marketers always preserved their oranges under the shade of trees, and the majority of the marketers sometimes sorted oranges by bruises (68.5%), by stage of ripeness (71.3%), and by size (70.4%). Sorting of oranges before packaging them or loading them into vehicles (95.7%), the use of packaging materials for oranges before loading (75.3%), and packaging oranges immediately after harvesting (97.8%) were applied on an occasional basis. Some of the marketers (43.0%) always ensure that only oranges in good condition are packaged. Most marketers occasionally avoid overloading of vehicles (87.0%) and throwing produce from vehicles when loading and offloading it (67.6%). The majority of the marketers always sell their oranges even if the price is not favourable (63.9%), and 73.1% do not guarantee that oranges will be sold on the same day that they arrive to the market.

3.8. The Level of Utilisation of Postharvest Handling Practices

Table 8. The distribution of the marketers based on their level of postharvest handling practices utilisation.

Postharvest Handling Practice Utilisation Levels	Freq.	%	Minimum	Maximum	Mean	S Dev.
Low (<mean)	39	37.5	14.00	26.00	19.91	2.54
High (≥mean)	65	62.5

shows the distribution of the marketers based on their level of utilisation of postharvest handling practices. The results show that 62.5% of the marketers had a high level of utilisation of postharvest handling practices, while 37.5% had a low level of utilisation of postharvest handling practices.

3.9. Hypothesis Testing

3.9.1. The Chi-Square Relationship Between the Independent Variables and the Utilisation of Postharvest Handling Practices

The results in

Table 9. Chi-square relationships between independent variables and postharvest handling practice utilisation.

Variables	χ2	Df	p-Value	Decision
Sex	3.152	1	0.076	Not significant
Marital status	4.781	3	0.189	Not significant
Education	2.550	2	0.279	Not significant
Primary occupation	1.446	1	0.229	Not significant
Packaging with sacks	23.314 **	1	0.000	Significant

** Significant at 0.01.

show that there was no significant relationship between the marketers’ sex (χ² = 3.152, p > 0.05), marital status (χ² = 4.781, p > 0.05), education (χ² = 2.550, p > 0.05), or primary occupation (χ² = 1.446, p > 0.05) and their utilisation of postharvest handling practices. However, there was a significant relationship between the use of sacks for packaging and postharvest handling practices (χ² = 23.314, p < 0.01).

3.9.2. Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) Between Independent Variables and Utilisation of Postharvest Handling Practices

From the results in

Table 10. PPMC relationship between independent variables and postharvest handling practices utilisation.

Variables	r-Value	p-Value	Decision
Age	−0.220 *	0.025	Significant
Years of marketing experience	−0.115	0.246	Not significant
Knowledge	0.272 **	0.005	Significant
Attitude	0.492 **	0.000	Significant

* = significant at 0.05, ** = significant at 0.01.

, a significant association exists between the marketers’ age (r = −0.220, p < 0.05), knowledge of postharvest handling (r = 0.272, p < 0.01), and attitudinal disposition towards postharvest handling (r = 0.492, p < 0.01) and the marketers’ utilisation of postharvest handling practices. But there was no significant association between years of experience marketing sweet oranges (r = −0.115, p > 0.05) and the marketers’ utilisation of postharvest handling practices.

4. Discussion

4.1. The Personal Characteristics of the Marketers

The average age of the marketers obtained in this study shows that they are agile and active, as they are still productive. The average age of 39.89 ± 7.56 years indicates the youthfulness of the marketers in Benue State, Nigeria. Younger marketers are expected to understand the importance of postharvest handling practices better. The result of this study aligns with previous research [10] which reported a mean age of 39.0 years among sweet orange marketers in Benue State. Also, in a study [21] conducted among fruit marketers in Bahir Dar, Ethiopia, it was found that fruit marketing is mainly handled by young people. Marketing of oranges was found to be predominantly dominated by men in the study area. This finding might be attributed to the long distance associated with orange marketing in Benue. During the field survey, it was found that the marketers spent days on the road when transporting oranges. Hence, women may not be able to combine housework with the rigour of travelling long distances for days, unlike men. This conflicts with a previous finding [22] that showed that the majority of the fruit marketers in Lagos, Ogun, and Osun States, Nigeria, were female. Likewise, another study reported that sweet orange marketing is dominated by women in Oyo State, Nigeria [23]. The higher number of marketers who are married shows that they have a measure of household responsibilities to attend to. So, ensuring good postharvest handling practices might translate into a higher income to meet their household needs. The marketers were found to be formally educated in this study. Most of the marketers had a tertiary education, indicating that the majority were graduates. This high level of education is expected to enhance the marketers’ acceptance of any initiative that will enhance their postharvest handling practices. This result agrees with a previous study [21] that found that fruit marketing is mainly handled by relatively educated individuals compared to fruit production. Contrastingly, the result on education disagrees with a previous study [24] which reported that the majority of fruit marketers are formally educated to the level of a primary education. The marketing of oranges was the primary means of livelihood for almost all of the marketers. In addition, more than 50.0% of the marketers engage in other livelihood-generating activities, implying multiple streams of income for some of the marketers. More than 40.0% of the marketers engaged solely in orange marketing.

4.2. The Enterprise Characteristics of the Marketers

The average years of marketing experience of 12.5 years indicated that the marketers were not just beginners or novices in the orange marketing business. Marketing experience spanning over 10 years should have allowed the marketers to understand the dangers of poor postharvest handling practices and how to guide against them. Similarly, a past study [7] reported average marketing experience of 15 years among sweet orange marketers in Benue State, Nigeria. Marketers finance their orange businesses primarily by using their savings, while one-quarter of the marketers receive financial assistance from friends. Financial assistance from cooperatives, customers, and microfinance banks was very sparse. This finding is in tandem with a past study [23] that found that very few of the sweet orange marketers in Oyo State received finance from cooperatives. Hence, marketers might not be able to expand their orange businesses beyond their personal financial strength. Also, poor postharvest handling practices leading to the loss of produce can result in a collapse in the business for marketers in the absence of an alternate source of finance. All of the marketers employed the services of hired labourers for their marketing activities. This might be because of the high volume of trade in the study area, as found during the field survey. The findings from this study align with previous research [25] that found that all marketers relied on the use of hired labourers for their orange enterprises regarding transportation. Oranges are usually purchased by marketers while they are still on the trees, either at the mature green or fully or half-ripe stages. The most important factor that determines the postharvest life and final quality of fruits, such as their appearance, texture, flavour, and nutritive value, is maturity at harvest [26]. After harvesting, oranges are temporarily preserved under the shade of trees before loading them into vehicles. Marketers do not process the oranges into any products. All oranges bought are sold in urban markets to wholesalers. The oranges are transported using various means, such as 911 lorries, trailers, motorcycles, 12-tyre trucks, containers, and J5 vans. But in Lagos, Osun, and Ogun States, the use of open lorries and pick-up vans for the transportation of oranges is common [22]. As stated by the marketers during the field survey, vehicles are left open most of the time during transportation. The use of motorcycles is to facilitate the movement of the oranges from the farmers’ farms to collection points, where they are loaded into vehicles for onward transportation to urban markets in other states in Nigeria. Oranges are transported at any time of the day, whether morning, afternoon, or evening, or even at night. In essence, the transportation of oranges is not restricted to a particular time of the day. During the field survey, it was discovered that the marketers travelled long distances to urban markets in both far and near states, such as Kano, Kaduna, Nasarawa, Oyo, Rivers, Abia, Sokoto, Borno, Yobe, Bauchi, Jos, Edo, Abuja, and Lagos, among others, to sell their produce. This might account for the reason why credence is not given to transporting oranges during the coolest part of the day in Benue State, Nigeria. Before loading the oranges into vehicles, marketers can choose to package them or not. Thus, packaging oranges is not compulsory, but whenever marketers want to package their oranges, sacks are used. In Oyo State, Nigeria, it was reported that none of the orange marketers sampled (both wholesalers and retailers) used any packaging materials for their oranges [23].

4.3. Knowledge of Postharvest Handling Practices

The marketers displayed high knowledge of postharvest handling practices. They knew that oranges deteriorate whenever vehicles break down. This reduces the market value of oranges, which invariably lowers the marketers’ incomes. Good roads are essential to ensuring timelines in the transportation of oranges. This helps to ensure that oranges arrive at the markets or distribution centres in good condition. Bad roads are a severe cause of postharvest losses of sweet oranges [27]. Marketers know the negative effects of heat on oranges. So, oranges are gathered under trees to protect them from the sun. An increase in temperature reduces the shelf life of horticultural crops, as most factors that cause produce to deteriorate or reduce its quality usually occur at a faster rate as the temperature increases [28]. Another postharvest handling practice that marketers know about is the sorting of oranges. Sorting is carried out to remove diseased oranges so that healthy ones will not be contaminated. Sorting is also carried out to remove bruised oranges. Bruised oranges spoil quickly, and if they are not removed, they contaminate and quicken the deterioration of healthy ones. No customer will want to buy oranges that have gone bad. Among roadside orange sellers in Oyo State, Nigeria, a high premium is placed on the cleaning and sorting of oranges [12]. Marketers know that oranges lose value due to exposure to high temperatures if they cannot be sold right away. After harvesting, the longer oranges remain unsold, the greater the reduction in their market value and the lower the profit made. Since oranges are perishable, leaving them for days without preservation increases their rate of deterioration.

4.4. The Marketers’ Attitudes Towards Postharvest Handling

The marketers were positively inclined towards placing the oranges in the shade. This helps to reduce the effects of heat on oranges. The marketers agreed that it is necessary to pack oranges in well-ventilated materials. This is crucial to reducing the heat generation within packaged oranges. In the opinion of the marketers, postharvest handling of oranges is not a waste of time. This implies that the marketers have knowledge of the benefits accruing from good postharvest handling and are positively inclined towards ensuring good practices. Careful handling of oranges helps prevent spoilage. The marketers’ attitudinal disposition towards sorting out damaged oranges was favourable, as it was considered an important exercise. Damage caused during postharvest handling makes oranges susceptible to attacks by decay. The marketers were indifferent towards the attitudinal statement “any type of packaging material is suitable for oranges”. This might have been because the only packaging materials known by the marketers were sacks. Also, packaging oranges is not mandatory, as the marketers in the study area sometimes load their oranges into vehicles without using any packaging materials. The marketers show a favourable attitude towards maintaining good sanitation in collection centres. The cleanliness of the collection centres is crucial to reductions in losses, as contamination of healthy fruits results in more losses.

4.5. The Postharvest Handling Practices of the Orange Marketers

The preservation method used by marketers is keeping the oranges under shade before loading them into vehicles and when the oranges arrive to market. None of the marketers are using advanced methods of preservation. Poor storage facilities and a lack of processing facilities have been identified as severe causes of postharvest losses of sweet oranges [4]. Sorting was occasionally carried out by most of the marketers. Oranges are sometimes sorted by bruising, stage of ripeness, or size. It was discovered during the field survey that the marketers sell most of their oranges at urban markets in northern Nigeria, where the buyers are not so meticulous about sorting, unlike in Lagos markets. Nevertheless, sorting is important to maintaining the good quality of the oranges. Any scarring on sweet oranges serves as a point of entry for microbes, thereby quickening spoilage [29]. It was discovered that most marketers who use packaging materials do so on an occasional basis. This implies that these marketers do not use sacks exclusively during orange marketing. Oranges are occasionally packaged immediately after harvesting. This is because harvesting might take days at times, and there is no point in packaging the oranges if they are not ready for transportation. More so, packaging materials are not used by marketers all the time. Past research [21] reported that the use of packaging materials during fruit transportation would reduce fruit spoilage resulting from mechanical damage during loading and unloading and when driving on rough roads. However, this is dependent on the kind of packaging materials used because with the use of sacks in the study area, oranges can still suffer mechanical damage [21]. The cleanliness of the packaging material is considered important, as noted by the marketers who use packaging materials in the study area. There is no guarantee that all packaged oranges are of good quality. It was found during the field survey that packaging is mostly carried out by hired labourers who may not pay careful attention to sorting the oranges. Furthermore, overloading of vehicles seems to be inevitable, as most of the marketers only occasionally ensure that vehicles are not overloaded. Overloading and stacking of oranges contribute to the postharvest losses experienced by marketers [30]. However, stability of the loaded vehicles is always ensured by the marketers. When the vehicles are being loaded with oranges, they are not usually kept under shade by most marketers. Also, there is no guarantee that the oranges will be sold on the same day that they arrive to the market. There are times when the marketers have to sell their oranges even if the price is unfavourable. This is to guard against losses and shortages.

4.6. The Relationship Between the Independent Variables and Postharvest Handling

The personal characteristics of the marketers, such as their sex, marital status, education, and primary occupation, do not significantly relate to their postharvest handling practices. This implies that these aforementioned personal characteristics do not influence the marketers’ postharvest handling practices. The significant relationship that exists between the use of sacks for packaging and postharvest handling practices indicates that the use of sacks as packaging materials had a significant influence on the marketers’ postharvest handling practices. A significant and negative correlation was obtained between the marketers’ age and their use of postharvest handling practices. This indicates that the use of postharvest handling practices decreases with age. Hence, younger marketers engage more in postharvest handling practices, thus having a higher level of use of postharvest handling practices. However, the older marketers engaged less in postharvest handling practices. The correlation between the marketers’ knowledge and postharvest handling practices was significant and positive. This implies that knowledge had a positive influence on their use of postharvest handling practices. Thus, the higher their level of knowledge, the higher their use of postharvest handling practices. There was a significant and positive correlation between attitude and postharvest handling practices. This indicates that a favourable attitudinal disposition positively affects the use of postharvest handling practices. Thus, the more favourable marketers’ attitudes are, the greater the increase in their use of postharvest handling practices.

5. Conclusions

A viable orange marketing enterprise is crucial to the sustainability of crop production. As found in this study, orange marketers are young and still in their active years. The marketers were predominantly male and educated, mainly graduates. Not all of the marketers engage in other income-generating activities; hence, maintaining good postharvest handling practices is a way for them to sustain their orange enterprises by achieving good returns from the sale of oranges while curtailing their losses. Oranges are transported at any time of the day to the various urban markets where they will be sold. There was no importance attached to moving the oranges during the coolest part of the day to guard against heat. Also, oranges are transported either with or without packaging materials. The marketers had good knowledge of postharvest handling practices and were positively inclined towards the use of these practices. However, their use of some of the postharvest handling practices assessed in this study is occasional. The empirical evidence from this study established that knowledge and attitude positively influence the marketers’ use of postharvest handling practices. Hence, with increased knowledge and favourable attitudinal dispositions, the marketers’ postharvest handling practices can be enhanced. Invariably, the postharvest losses can be minimised and the marketers’ profits maximised. This study recommends the generation of awareness and sensitisation among marketers by horticultural crop institutions on improved preservation and packaging methods for sweet oranges.