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Proceeding Paper

Dynamics of Total Carotenoid Content of Yellow Root Cassava Varieties During Gari Processing †

by
Ibukunolu Oluwadamilola Udemba
1,2,*,
Bunmi Olasanmi
1,* and
Peter Iluebbey
3
1
Department of Crop and Horticultural Sciences, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 200005, Oyo State, Nigeria
2
Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, Obafemi Awolowo University, Moor Plantation, Ibadan 200273, Oyo State, Nigeria
3
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan 200001, Oyo State, Nigeria
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
Presented at the CORAF’s 2023 Symposium on Processing and Transformation of Agricultural Products in West and Central Africa: Achievements and Opportunities for Private Sector Engagement, Lome, Togo, 21–23 November 2023.
Proceedings 2025, 118(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/proceedings2025118013
Published: 22 May 2025
Browse Figure
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Abstract

:
Changes in the total carotenoid content (TCC) of three yellow root cassava varieties, IBAI070593, IBAI011368, and IBAI070539, and a check white root variety (TMSI30572) as influenced by each gari processing stage were investigated in this study. In two cropping seasons, fresh storage roots were harvested 12 months after planting, analyzed for TCC (μg/g), and processed into gari. The TCCs in grated mash, fermented and dewatered mash, and gari were determined following the Bioanalyt procedure. Across processing stages and varieties, significant variations in TCC were found. The TCC levels followed the order of garification (10.46) > fermentation and dewatering (9.84) > peeling (8.78) > grating (7.62), with IBAI070593 exhibiting the highest TCC.

1. Introduction

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is propagated principally for its storage roots, which serve as food, feed, and raw material for industries, though its leaves are also valued for vegetables. Globally, more than 800 million people depend on cassava for their staple calories [1]. In the developing world, cassava ranks fourth after wheat, maize, and rice as an energy source [2,3]. Specifically, about 700 million and 500 million of the tropics’ populace derive about 500 and 100 cal/day, respectively, from cassava roots [4]. Notably, cassava is rated as the second most important crop after maize in Africa, serving as a major staple for more than 40% of its population [1]. The quantity of cassava produced in Nigeria ranks highest globally [5] with up to 80% of Nigerians consuming cassava on a daily basis [6]. An excerpt from the report of Okoye et al. [7] indicated that some Nigerians even eat cassava and its products more than once a day due to its comparative affordability in relation to other crops amidst the prevailing economic recession.
The frequent consumption of cassava and its products without complementing it with vitamin A-rich food is linked to vitamin A deficiency (VAD) in humans [8]. This explains the report of the prevalence of micronutrient deficiency (including vitamin A) among cassava producers and consumers who use the crop as a major staple [9]. The deficiency stems from no or negligible carotenoid and micronutrient contents of white root cassava varieties, which are the most prominent cultivars available to farmers for propagation, and consequently in the market for other stakeholders along the cassava value addition and distribution chain. In addition, animal products which contain pre-formed vitamin A are too expensive for lower socio-economic segments of the Nigerian population to buy. Meanwhile, the continuous intake of diets devoid of pro-vitamin A carotenoids (PVACs; precursor of vitamin A) or pre-formed vitamin A has been reported to lead to partial or total blindness [10]. Other consequences of VAD are the increased vulnerability to diseases, the slowed development and untimely demise of children, and the high mortality of pregnant women [11,12], hence the rising concern of possible sustainable and cost-effective measures of combating VAD in recent decades.
The use of intervention measures like immunization, food diversification, supplementation, and fortification to combat VAD in Nigeria had yielded limited results. This is due to the fact that the target population (usually rural dwellers with low income) can hardly access or afford these measures. This has driven the screening of germplasm by breeders and nutritionists in order to explore its potential for increasing micronutrient density in staples through bio-fortification [13]. Bio-fortification involves the addition of nutrients to staple crops of populations at risk of micronutrients (including vitamin A) deficiency [14]. The successful bio-fortification of cassava in Nigeria led to the development and release of some yellow root cassava varieties (YRCVs) with high total carotenoid content (TCC). This provides a means of making PVACs continuously accessible to malnourished people in rural areas (once the food is consumed) at no extra cost, considering the significant role cassava plays in their diet [6,15].
Unfortunately, cassava is rarely eaten raw by humans but processed into various forms prior to consumption. In Nigeria, about 90% of the total production is processed for consumption [16], with 70% of the processed cassava converted to gari [17,18]. Meanwhile, carotenoids are naturally intracellular and processing procedure involving multiple steps (like gari-processing techniques) can increase their availability and subsequent degradation [19]. The degradation is enhanced by the chemical instability of carotenoids due to the presence of dual bonds in their molecular structure, and the high sensitivity of β-carotene (the highest carotenoid constituent of YRCVs) to light, oxygen, and heat. These influence to a large extent the amount of TCC retained in bio-fortified cassava products for end users. Therefore, efforts harnessed in enhancing the TCC of YRCVs through bio-fortification will be jeopardized if a substantial quantity is not retained in final products like gari, which is the most relished and generally acceptable product of cassava after processing.
In Nigeria, six YRCVs were released in 2011 and 2014. However, there is a paucity of information on the effect of each step involved in processing the fresh storage roots of these novel cassava varieties into gari on their TCC. Understanding the trend of carotenoid changes during the processing of bio-fortified cassava varieties into gari can help set breeding targets appropriately, improve processing techniques to reduce TCC loss, and ultimately help in varietal selection for propagation and adoption. Hence, this study was conducted to quantify the TCC in fresh storage roots, intermediate products, and gari from some novel YRCVs during gari processing.

2. Materials and Methods

In the 2018 and 2019 cropping seasons, three YRCVs (IBAI011368, IBAI070539, and IBAI070593) and a white root variety (TMSI30572) as check were planted at the experimental site of the Department of Crop and Horticultural Sciences, University of Ibadan. The experiment was laid out on the field using a randomized complete block design and replicated thrice. Twelve (12) months after planting, the fresh storage roots were harvested and processed into gari at the processing unit of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Ibadan, following the procedure described by James et al. [20]. About 20 kg of fresh storage roots of each variety (in their replicates) were peeled with stainless steel knives, rinsed with portable clean water, and grated mechanically with the aid of a petrol-powered rotating grating machine (Dandrea Agrimport brand). The grated mashes were packed into woven bags, placed inside plastic buckets, and left to ferment for 48 h. Subsequently, the bags containing the grated mashes were arranged in a metallic rack and pressed using a hydraulic jack to enable the simultaneous pressing and fermentation of the cassava mashes for 24 h. The pressed mashes were pulverized using the grater and garified in rectangular pans (heated by firewood) made from stainless steel with a chimney. Pictorial views of the fresh, peeled, grated storage roots and gari of the four cassava varieties are presented in Figure 1.
After each phase of gari processing, samples were analyzed for TCC at the i-check laboratory of IITA following the procedure described by Bioanalyt [21]. About 5 g of each sample was weighed into a mortar and macerated using a pestle. The macerated sample was made into slurry by mixing it with 20 mL of distilled water. The slurry was subsequently transferred into a well-labeled graduated falcon tube and shaken vigorously to create a uniform mixture. Using a syringe, 0.4 mL of each slurry sample was transferred into a reagent vial. The vials were shaken thoroughly for 10 s (to create a uniform mixture) and then allowed to stand for about 5 min. The absorbance of each sample was read on the i-check device and the TCC was estimated using the formula below:
Total carotenoid content = Dilution factor × Absorbance value
The data collected were subjected to descriptive statistics, analysis of variance, and correlation analysis using SAS (9.0 version). Significant means were separated by the least significant difference of means at the 5% level of probability.

3. Results

The results of the combined analysis of variance for the effect of variety, processing stage, and season on the TCC of the cassava during gari processing are summarized in Table 1. Significant varietal, processing stage, seasonal, and factor interaction effects were observed for the TCC of the cassava varieties during processing into gari (Table 1). The variation in TCC of the cassava varieties after each stage of processing in the two seasons of evaluation is presented in Table 2. Notably, the white root variety (TMSI30572) had no TCC (Table 2). In the 2019 season, variety IBAI070593 had the highest TCC after each processing stage, which differed significantly from the values recorded for other varieties (Table 2). After peeling in the 2020 season, the TCC in the fresh storage roots of IBAI070539 (9.91 μg/g) was highest and statistically at par with IBAI070593 (9.61 μg/g) and IBAI011368 (8.78 μg/g) (Table 2). Conversely, the maximum TCC recorded after grating (9.20 μg/g) and dewatering (10.91 μg/g) in the 2020 season were obtained from variety IBAI070593, and varied significantly from the quantity recorded for other bio-fortified varieties after these processing stages (Table 2).
Proceedings 118 00013 g001
Figure 1. The fresh roots (A), peeled roots (B), grated mashes (C), and gari (D) of four cassava varieties: TMSI30572 (white root check) and yellow roots of IBAI070539, IBAI0l1368, and IBAI070593 (from the left).
Figure 1. The fresh roots (A), peeled roots (B), grated mashes (C), and gari (D) of four cassava varieties: TMSI30572 (white root check) and yellow roots of IBAI070539, IBAI0l1368, and IBAI070593 (from the left).
Proceedings 118 00013 g001
On average, variety IBAI070593 maintained the highest TCC across the processing steps and compared statistically with only IBAI011368 after dewatering. Meanwhile, mean TCC values of TMSl011368 were consistently and significantly lowest among the three YRCVs across the processing stages except after dewatering when it had a statistically higher TCC than IBAI070539 (Table 2). A critical appraisal of the trend of the change in TCC shows that the TCC in all the YRCVs became depleted after grating but increased after fermentation and dewatering (Table 2). However, garification resulted in an increase in TCC of IBAI070593 (in both seasons) and IBAI070539 (in 2019), but a depletion of TCC of IBAI011368 (in both seasons) and IBAI070539 (in 2020) (Table 2). The percentage changes in the mean TCC of the three YRCVs during processing into gari are presented in Table 3. After grating and dewatering, the rate of change in TCC ranged from −1.20% (IBAI070539) to −25.99% (IBAI011368) and 18.13% (IBAI070539) to 70.59% (IBAI011368), respectively (Table 3). About 47.93% increase in TCC of IBAI070593 was recorded after garification, while decline of about 6.00% and 24.04% were noted for IBAI070539 and IBAI011368, respectively (Table 3).
On average, changes in the TCC of the YRCVs during processing into gari followed the order of garification (10.46 µg/g) > fermentation and dewatering (9.84 µg/g) > peeling (8.78 µg/g) > grating (7.62 µg/g) (Table 4). A significantly higher mean TCC was recorded in the second season (9.36 µg/g) compared to the first (Table 4). Meanwhile, TCC in fresh storage roots maintained a significantly strong positive correlation with the TCC of grated mash, dewatered mash, and gari (Table 5).

4. Discussion

The inedibility of cassava storage root in the raw state for humans and the chemical instability of carotenoids during processing make the benefits of bio-fortification of cassava to be dependent on the TCC status of products after typical processing. A record of 0 µg/g of TCC for the white root check variety affirms the submissions of [22,23] that most white varieties of cassava lack carotenoids. However, the presence of TCC in the fresh storage roots of the YRCVs suggests that YRCVs can proffer better health benefits than white root varieties by combating VAD when consumed, given the detrimental effect of VAD on humans. The TCC in the fresh storage roots of the three YRCVs, though lower than the target benchmark of 15 μg/g set for YRCVs [24], is within the range of 1.37 and 13 µg/g reported by some authors for the fresh storage root of some YRCVs from separate studies [25,26,27,28,29].
The observation of a significant varietal difference in TCC of the YRCVs during processing implies that the stability of carotenoids in the three YRCVs during processing into gari depends on their genetic potential for this trait. The observed reduction in TCC of all the YRCVs after grating agrees with the earlier observation of [29,30,31] who reported a decline in TCC of some YRCVs after grating. Carotenoids are naturally intracellular. Rupturing the YRCV tissues during grating exposed their inherent carotenoids, thereby enhancing their availability. Subsequently, the carotenoids were oxidized in the grater and environment, thus increasing their vulnerability to being lost through leaching from the grated mash. The increase in TCC of all dewatered bio-fortified cassava mashes after fermentation may not be unconnected to the production of additional carotenoids by the lactic bacteria and yeast in the cassava mash during fermentation and the enhanced availability of carotenoids locked up in cassava through softening [32,33,34]. Dewatering removes about 40% to 50% of moisture from cassava mash [35]. This significant moisture reduction might have been responsible for the TCC concentration in dewatered mashes when compared to the equivalent weight of fresh storage root or grated mash (where the TCCs are diluted by a higher volume of moisture). Varieties IBAI070539 and IBAl011368 had the minimum and maximum percentage of TCC deviation from peeling to grating, and from grating to fermentation and dewatering stages, suggesting that IBAI070539 retained most of its carotenoids during these processing stages, while carotenoids in TMSl011368 were less stable and more readily released through tissue disruption and processing treatments such as grating, fermentation, and dewatering.
Garification can reduce the moisture content of gari to as low as 7% [36]. Thus, the heat generated during garification simultaneously dehydrated the bio-fortified gari granules, concentrated their inherent TCC, and broke the membranes of large proteins, which might still be enclosing some carotenoids, thereby increasing their availability. Earlier, Gomes et al. [37] reiterated that while domestic food preparation like garification increases the availability of PVACs, it also simultaneously causes their loss through oxidation and/or isomerization. Hence, the increase in TCC of gari from IBAI070593 after garification when compared to an equivalent mass of the dewatered sample suggests that variety IBAI070593 has good carotenoid stability potential after exposure to heat during garification. On the contrary, the decrease in TCC of gari from IBAI070539 and TMSl011368 following garification implies a poor carotenoid stability capacity of these varieties after exposure to heat. This finding corroborates the submission of Maziya-Dixon et al. [30] that the variability in gari TCC (immediately after garification) is a function of its genotypic retention potential. Meanwhile, the disparity in the effect of garification on the TCC of gari from IBAI070539 in the two seasons affirms the earlier claim of Lee and Coates [38] that the stability of carotenoids in food is variable even within the same variety. The significant seasonal variation recorded for the TCC of the cassava varieties during processing corroborates the analogous finding of Bechoff et al. [31] and might be due to the difference in initial TCC of the YRCVs. However, the positive relationship between the TCC of fresh storage root and gari suggests that the amount of TCC in bio-fortified gari is dependent on the TCC in the fresh storage root it was obtained from. Hence, the highest TCC of gari from IBAI070593 in this study can be linked to the highest TCC of its fresh storage root, which was also enhanced by the stability of its TCC after exposure to heat. This finding negates the previous submission of La Frano et al. [39] who opined that the final concentration of carotenoid retained in gari after garification is not a function of the TCC of the fresh storage root it was obtained from. This might be due to the discrepancies in varieties used in the two studies.

5. Conclusions

From an overview of this study, it can be concluded that the total carotenoid content in the evaluated yellow root cassava varieties fluctuated during gari processing. The bio-fortified cassava varieties responded differently to each gari processing step, but the total carotenoid content in bio-fortified gari is dependent on the total carotenoid content in fresh storage roots and the year of production. Variety TMSI070593 with a high concentration of total carotenoid content in its fresh storage roots and high TCC retention during processing will enhance the total carotenoid contents of gari and ensure the delivery of higher pro-vitamin A carotenoids to end-users. The cultivation and processing of variety TMSI070593 are therefore recommended due to its highest gari total carotenoid content.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, I.O.U. and B.O. Methodology, I.O.U., B.O. and P.I.; Software, I.O.U. and B.O.; Validation, I.O.U., B.O. and P.I.; Formal Analysis, I.O.U. and B.O.; Investigation, I.O.U. and B.O. Resources, B.O., P.I. and I.O.U.; Data Curation, I.O.U. and B.O.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, I.O.U. with input from B.O. and P.I., Writing—Review and Editing, I.O.U., B.O. and P.I.; Visualization, I.O.U.; Supervision, B.O. and P.I.; Project Administration, I.O.U., B.O. and P.I. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to appreciate the HarvestPlus Project and the Cassava Breeding Unit staff of IITA, Ibadan, for providing the support for the total carotenoid analysis.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
TCCTotal carotenoid content
VADVitamin A deficiency
YRCVsYellow root cassava varieties
PVACsPro-vitamin A carotenoids

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Table 1. Combined analysis of variance for effect of variety, season, and processing stage on total carotenoid content of four cassava varieties during processing into gari.
Table 1. Combined analysis of variance for effect of variety, season, and processing stage on total carotenoid content of four cassava varieties during processing into gari.
Source of VariationDegree of FreedomMean SquareSum of Squares
Replication20.170.35
Season 11.28 ***1.28
Processing stage 318.68 ***56.04
Variety3555.83 ***1667.49
Processing stage × season 32.22 ***6.67
Season × variety 34.11 ***12.34
Processing stage × variety 914.64 ***131.76
Processing stage × season× variety 92.37 ***21.37
*** implies significance at 0.001 level of probability.
Table 2. Total carotenoid content (µg/g) of four varieties of cassava after different stages of gari processing in two seasons.
Table 2. Total carotenoid content (µg/g) of four varieties of cassava after different stages of gari processing in two seasons.
VarietyFresh Storage RootGrated MashFermented and
Dewatered Mash		GariFresh RootGrated MashFermented and
Dewatered Mash		GariFresh Storage RootGrated MashFermented and
Dewatered Mash		Gari
20192020Average
IBAI01059310.858.5610.0816.589.619.2010.9113.7910.238.8710.4915.19
IBAI0105396.696.378.078.529.918.0310.268.728.307.209.178.62
TMSI305720.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.00
IBAI0113686.856.169.936.868.785.399.808.137.815.789.867.50
*LSD (p < 0.05)0.160.700.160.121.210.200.630.550.190.150.160.39
*LSD: least significant difference.
Table 3. Percentage changes in mean total carotenoid content of three yellow root cassava varieties during processing into gari in two seasons.
Table 3. Percentage changes in mean total carotenoid content of three yellow root cassava varieties during processing into gari in two seasons.
VarietyPeeling to GratingGrating to Fermentation and DewateringFermentation and Dewatering to Roasting
IBAI070593−13.2018.1347.93
IBAI070539−1.2011.83−6.00
TMSI011368−25.9970.59−24.04
“−“ indicates TCC loss/reduction.
Table 4. Mean total carotenoid content (µg/g) of four cassava varieties in different gari processing stages in two seasons.
Table 4. Mean total carotenoid content (µg/g) of four cassava varieties in different gari processing stages in two seasons.
Processing StageTotal Carotenoid Content (µg/g)
Peeling8.78
Grating7.62
Fermentation and dewatering9.84
Garification10.46
LSD (p < 0.05)0.29
Season
First8.97
Second9.36
LSD (p < 0.05)0.20
Table 5. Pearson correlation coefficients between total carotenoid content of fresh storage root and products along gari processing chain.
Table 5. Pearson correlation coefficients between total carotenoid content of fresh storage root and products along gari processing chain.
Processing StagesFresh Storage Root TCC
Post-grating TCC0.925 ***
Post-dewatering TCC0.966 ***
Post-garification TCC0.920 ***
*** implies significance at the 0.001 level of probability.
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Udemba, I.O.; Olasanmi, B.; Iluebbey, P. Dynamics of Total Carotenoid Content of Yellow Root Cassava Varieties During Gari Processing. Proceedings 2025, 118, 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/proceedings2025118013

AMA Style

Udemba IO, Olasanmi B, Iluebbey P. Dynamics of Total Carotenoid Content of Yellow Root Cassava Varieties During Gari Processing. Proceedings. 2025; 118(1):13. https://doi.org/10.3390/proceedings2025118013

Chicago/Turabian Style

Udemba, Ibukunolu Oluwadamilola, Bunmi Olasanmi, and Peter Iluebbey. 2025. "Dynamics of Total Carotenoid Content of Yellow Root Cassava Varieties During Gari Processing" Proceedings 118, no. 1: 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/proceedings2025118013

APA Style

Udemba, I. O., Olasanmi, B., & Iluebbey, P. (2025). Dynamics of Total Carotenoid Content of Yellow Root Cassava Varieties During Gari Processing. Proceedings, 118(1), 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/proceedings2025118013

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