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Proceeding Paper

Acrylamide Levels and Associated Health Risks in Traditional Arabic Coffee Roasts †

by
Carmen M. Breitling-Utzmann
1,
Steffen Schwarz
2 and
Dirk W. Lachenmeier
3,*
1
Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Stuttgart, Schaflandstr. 3/2, 70736 Fellbach, Germany
2
Coffee Consulate, Hans-Thoma-Strasse 20, 68163 Mannheim, Germany
3
Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Weissenburger Strasse 3, 76187 Karlsruhe, Germany
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
Presented at the International Coffee Convention 2024, Mannheim, Germany, 17–18 October 2024.
Proceedings 2024, 109(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/ICC2024-18170
Published: 8 August 2024
(This article belongs to the Proceedings of ICC 2024)
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Abstract

:
This study examines the acrylamide levels in a range of roasted coffee samples from Bahrain, with a particular focus on traditionally very light roasted coffees. Acrylamide, classified as a Group 2A carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), is formed during the roasting process as a byproduct of the reaction between amino acids and reducing sugars present in coffee beans. The acrylamide levels were quantified using the standard method EN 16618:2015, which employs liquid chromatography in combination with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The results demonstrated that the acrylamide levels in very light-roasted coffee samples (646 µg/kg, n = 4), which exhibited characteristics similar to green coffee, were significantly above the European Union (EU) benchmark level for roasted coffee of 400 µg/kg. In contrast, medium-roasted coffee samples (154 µg/kg, n = 4) and dark-roasted coffee samples (62 µg/kg, n = 2) did not exceed the benchmark level. These findings indicate a potential health risk associated with the consumption of very light-roasted coffee, emphasizing the need for awareness and possible mitigation strategies to reduce acrylamide exposure in traditional Arabic coffee practices.

1. Introduction

Arabic coffee, or qahwah arabiyya (قهوة عربية), holds a significant place in Middle Eastern culture, particularly in the Gulf Region, where it is a staple in social interactions and welcoming guests. Uniquely prepared across the region, Arabic coffee is especially notable for its light roast, often described as “blond” or “cinnamon”. This very light roasting method, historically performed over an open fire, results in a flavor profile that can be perceived as “grassy” if not balanced with spices. The variance in roasting degrees is significantly greater in Arabic countries compared to Europe or the United States. The lightest Arabic roasts are even lighter than Scandinavian roasts, which are the lightest in Europe, while the darkest Arabic roasts surpass the intensity of Neapolitan roasts found in Europe. Some blends of Arabic coffee, made with gold-roasted beans and cardamom, can resemble tea more than coffee due to their light color and refreshing taste (Figure 1). Common additions to Arabic coffee besides cardamom include cloves, saffron, and sometimes sweet ingredients, which enhance its light, delicate flavors [1,2,3]. This distinctive roasting and flavoring tradition highlights the cultural and culinary heritage of Arabic coffee in the broader Middle Eastern region, but particularly in the Persian Gulf Region, which includes countries such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, Yemen, and Oman.
Acrylamide, a potentially harmful chemical formed in high-temperature processes such as roasting [4], has been a significant concern in food safety due to its classification as a probable human carcinogen (Group 2A) by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) [5]. Among various food products, coffee has been identified as a notable source of dietary acrylamide exposure, contributing significantly to total intake, specifically in populations with high prevalence of coffee consumption [6,7,8]. Although extensive research has been conducted on acrylamide in European-style medium- to dark-roasted coffees, there is a scarcity of data regarding its levels in very light-roasted Arabic coffee. This study aims to fill this gap by investigating the acrylamide content in very light-roasted Arabic coffee from Bahrain, with a focus on understanding the potential health risks and providing insights for mitigation strategies. Given the unique roasting practices and high consumption rates of light-roasted coffee in these regions, our research is crucial for developing region-specific guidelines to minimize acrylamide exposure and enhance food safety.

2. Summary of the Most Recent International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) Assessment of Acrylamide

The most recent international assessment of acrylamide by the 2024 IARC Monographs Priorities Working Group [9] reaffirms its classification as probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A). Acrylamide was first evaluated by the IARC in 1994, where it was identified with inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans but sufficient evidence in experimental animals [5]. The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) classified acrylamide as a genotoxic carcinogen in 2011, without calculating an acceptable daily intake (ADI) [10].
Since the 1994 IARC evaluation [5], numerous epidemiological studies have explored the relationship between dietary acrylamide intake and various cancers, often yielding inconclusive or inconsistent results [11,12,13,14]. These studies faced challenges in accurately estimating acrylamide intake, leading to potential biases [9]. Some studies suggested modest associations with cancers of the kidney [15], endometrium, ovary, premenopausal breast [16,17], and squamous cell esophageal cancer in never-smokers [18]. Meta-analyses provided mixed results [9], with some finding no association between dietary acrylamide and renal cell carcinoma in never smokers [19].
Studies on acrylamide and glycidamide hemoglobin adducts also reported mixed outcomes [9]. No significant associations were found with ovarian or endometrial cancer risk in non-smoking postmenopausal women in the USA and Europe [20,21], but a positive association was observed with breast cancer risk in Japan [11]. Data from NHANES 2003–2014 indicated a positive association between these adducts and cancer mortality in the adult American population [22].
Acrylamide and its metabolite glycidamide form covalent adducts with DNA, exhibiting genotoxic properties in experimental animals [23]. Studies have confirmed the clastogenic and mutagenic properties of acrylamide and glycidamide, providing insights into their mechanisms [24,25]. Glycidamide forms N7-glycidamide-guanine DNA adducts in rodents and humans, and a unique mutational signature linked to acrylamide has been identified in various human tumor genomes [26]. Interactions between acrylamide intake and genetic variants suggest that acrylamide may influence ovarian cancer risk through effects on sex hormones [27]. Acrylamide also induces oxidative stress in experimental systems and humans [28,29]. Further research indicates acrylamide-induced adipogenesis and metabolic-related outcomes [9], such as metabolic syndrome and increased overweight prevalence in early childhood [30,31].
In light of this evidence, the IARC Priorities Working Group concluded that although the overall classification of acrylamide may not change, new evidence of associations with cancers of the breast, kidney, endometrium, and ovary supports an assessment of at least limited evidence for carcinogenicity in humans. This new evidence could have significant public health implications, emphasizing the need for further mechanistic studies in exposed humans [9]. Given these developments, the IARC priorities working group suggested a reconsideration of the IARC Monographs classification for acrylamide. The priority for reevaluation was considered high (<2.5 years) [9,32].

3. Materials and Methods

Similar to the authors’ previous study [33], acrylamide was analyzed using the EN 16618:2015 standard method with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) [34]. As a slight modification, samples were defatted by dousing with isohexane and butyl methyl ether (95 + 5). The method achieved a limit of detection (LOD) of 3 μg/kg, a limit of quantification (LOQ) of 10 μg/kg, and a repeatability relative standard deviation (RSDr) of 2% for milled roasted coffee. It has been successfully applied in multiple proficiency tests.
The Arabic coffee samples were purchased as a convenience sample at coffee roasters in Manama, Bahrain. The roast degree was determined per visual expert-based classification. Figure 2 presents representative examples for the roast degrees.
Commercial samples from Germany were obtained from official sampling for food control purposes in the German federal state Baden-Württemberg from all stages of trade, mainly supermarkets and artisanal roasters, between 2019 and June 2024, using a risk-oriented strategy. These samples were either analyzed using LC/MS/MS as detailed above [34] or alternatively using a screening procedure based on nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectrometry [35].
The authors used ChatGPT (version GPT-4o), developed by OpenAI, San Francisco, CA, USA, for providing support in drafting the introduction and conclusion sections, generating BibTeX entries, and refining the scientific discussion on acrylamide exposure.

4. Results

The results of Arabic coffees from Bahrain (Table 1) indicate that light-roasted coffees generally have higher acrylamide levels, with samples from Harrar, Ethiopia, showing the highest at 902 µg/kg, compared to medium- and dark-roasted coffees, which exhibited significantly lower levels, with the lowest in dark-roasted Brazilian coffee at non-detectable levels. The results indicate that several light-roasted coffee samples exceeded the EU benchmark level of 400 µg/kg for acrylamide. Specifically, the light-roasted samples from Harrar, Ethiopia (902 µg/kg), Lugmati, Ethiopia (648 µg/kg and 716 µg/kg), and one medium-roasted sample from India (453 µg/kg) were above this threshold. Interestingly, the light-roasted sample from Yemen, which has an acrylamide level of 327 µg/kg, is below the EU benchmark level of 400 µg/kg. The results demonstrated a statistically significant trend (p < 0.001 for all pairwise comparisons, z-test), with weighted averages of 646 ± 41, 154 ± 10, and 62 ± 1 µg/kg for light, medium, and dark roasts, respectively. These findings indicate a substantial and significant decrease in acrylamide concentration as roasting intensity increases.
The results of the analysis of commercial samples from Germany are summarized in Table 2 compared to previous surveys by our institutes with similar sampling strategies. Compared to the findings published by the authors’ institutes in 2002 [33,36], the average acrylamide levels detected in this study were significantly decreased for roasted coffee. Germany has led the EU in acrylamide reduction efforts [37]. Consequently, manufacturers are well-prepared to meet new regulations should the current benchmark level be enforced as the legal maximum [37].
For roasted coffee, only two out of 693 samples (0.3%) analyzed during 2019–2024 exceeded the benchmark level of 400 µg/kg. Interestingly, the sample with the highest content (912 µg/kg) was an Arabic-style roasted coffee labeled as “Brasil Coffee Super-Light Color”. The coffee was sold in an Arabic supermarket in Germany, labeled in Arabic and English; the importer was in the Netherlands, but the country where the roasting occurred was not stated. The second sample was a ground roasted coffee (labeled with mild, 100% Arabica, and long-term drum roasting) with an acrylamide content of 576 µg/kg. The sample was a typical German coffee with a medium roast degree to prepare filtered coffee using a percolator.
Additionally, two coffee substitutes from cereals (malt coffees, 100% barley) contained acrylamide contents with 652 µg/kg and 704 µg/kg above the benchmark level of 500 µg/kg for the product group of coffee substitutes exclusively from cereals.
Furthermore, two coffee substitutes from a mixture of cereals and chicory with 1090 and 1300 µg/kg were suspicious. However, exceedance of the benchmark was unclear because the benchmark has to take into account the relative proportion of the ingredients in the final product, which were unknown (benchmark level for cereals 500 µg/kg and for chicory 4000 µg/kg).

5. Discussion

5.1. Why Is It Necessary to Mitigate Acrylamide Contents in Coffee?

The EFSA suggested that the margin of exposure of acrylamide indicates a health concern for neoplastic effects based on animal evidence [7]. Coffee is an important topic in reduction in acrylamide exposure because its consumption may lead to 20–30% of total daily intake [39]. However, the genotoxic potential of acrylamide has been observed predominantly at high doses, much above those encountered through dietary exposure [14,40].
In contrast to acrylamide, coffee itself has not been found to be carcinogenic [41,42]. Epidemiological studies even suggest a protective effect of coffee consumption against liver cancer, which is a major target organ for heat-induced contaminants [41,42]. This paradox can be understood by considering the complex mixture of compounds in coffee, some of which possess antioxidative and anticarcinogenic properties that might mitigate the risks posed by acrylamide [33].
This perspective is supported by recent evaluations suggesting that at low doses, the genotoxicity of acrylamide is minimal and within the range of endogenous background levels of similar DNA damage in humans [14,40]. Therefore, while acrylamide’s hazard classification as a probable carcinogen warrants caution, the actual risk from coffee consumption remains low due to the low levels of acrylamide typically present and the potential protective effects of other coffee constituents.
Acrylamide is produced during coffee roasting, primarily involving asparagine and reducing sugars [43,44]. Its formation is constrained by asparagine availability [45], explaining the higher acrylamide levels in Coffea canephora (“Robusta”) due to its greater asparagine content. Mitigation strategies include agronomic practices (e.g., species selection, fertilization) and roasting adjustments, as well as processing techniques like asparaginase addition or using lactic acid bacteria, though these remain largely unfeasible [8]. Removing defective beans is advisable, as they may have significantly higher asparagine levels (>2 fold) [39,46]. Further possibilities include enzymatically reducing acrylamide in the end product using acrylamide amidohydrolase [47]. While coffee storage can substantially reduce acrylamide, final brew preparation has minimal effect due to acrylamide’s water solubility [8]. Some researchers attribute variations in commercial samples mainly to differences in storage duration [48]. Research has predominantly focused on roasting, consistently showing that increased roasting decreases acrylamide levels [6,33,44,45,46,48,49,50]. After years of voluntary industry efforts [37], the EU recently enacted regulations mandating mitigation measures and benchmark levels for acrylamide in food [38]. Producers must identify critical roasting conditions to minimize acrylamide and keep levels below the 400 µg/kg benchmark. The industry should also consider that such products may not be marketed on the EU market as soon as the current benchmark levels are transferred into legally binding maximum limits. It is of note that the setting of maximum levels for acrylamide in certain foods complementary to measures provided by the Regulation (EU) 2017/2158 [38] is currently under consideration by the EU commission [51].

5.2. The Health Risk of Excessive Acrylamide Contamination in Light-Roasted Coffee

As the presented results from Bahrain and Germany as well as previous roasting experiments [33] show, very light-roasted coffee, which can be predominantly found on markets in the broader Middle Eastern region as Arabic-style coffees, may be prone to very high levels of acrylamide contamination and often in exceedance of the EU benchmark level of 400 µg/kg. This is also confirmed by the very limited literature on Arabic coffee roasts. For example, Alamri et al. reported higher levels in light than in medium or dark coffee [52]. Another study from Egypt reported a high level of 480 µg/kg even in a dark Arabic coffee [53]. Conflicting results were reported in another study with lower levels in light than in dark coffees from Egypt and Saudi Arabia [54]. However, the analytical methodologies in the latter two studies appear to be questionable because unlikely results in the mg/kg range are reported. Finally, Khan et al. reported comparably low results of 73–108 µg/kg in nine Arabic coffees, but the roasting degree was not specified for any of the samples [55].
Mitigation strategies for reducing acrylamide in Arabic coffee must be carefully considered for several reasons. Firstly, light roasting is a deeply rooted tradition in countries where coffee roasting was originally discovered, making it a significant cultural practice. Changing this tradition could be met with resistance and disrupt long-established customs. Secondly, health risks associated with acrylamide have not been epidemiologically observed in countries that prefer light-roasted coffees. For example, acrylamide-associated cancer rates are considerably lower in these countries compared to regions where medium- or dark-roasted coffee is more common [56]. This suggests that the specific type of coffee roasting may not significantly impact overall health outcomes, at least not in a sensitivity measurable by epidemiological studies, possibly being absent or much lower than other lifestyle-associated health risks such as those from cigarette smoking or alcohol consumption. Lastly, the health risk of acrylamide may have an exposure threshold that is currently unclear [14]. Nevertheless, the authors would advise caution specifically for the potentially higher levels in very light-roasted coffee, for which it is currently unclear if exposure might exceed the thresholds of endogenous background [40] (see Section 5.1). Therefore, a nuanced balance of benefits and risks of coffee consumption must precede the possible implementation of mitigation measures. Exposure assessment must be based on a much larger sample than described in this study. Additionally, other contaminants should be considered. For example, furfuryl alcohol, furan, and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural were found to be inversely related to acrylamide, occurring in higher concentrations at darker roasts than at lighter roasts [33].

6. Conclusions

For producers of Arabic light-roasted coffee, optimizing the roasting process may be a starting point to mitigate acrylamide contamination for reasons of precautionary public health protection. As the sample from Yemen shows, it appears technologically possible to obtain light-roasted coffee with acrylamide levels below the EU benchmark. During roasting, acrylamide initially forms and subsequently degrades with prolonged exposure to high temperatures. Very light roasting may not reach the phase where acrylamide degradation occurs. Therefore, one approach may be to roast the beans to an even lighter degree than current practices, which could prevent significant acrylamide formation since green coffee beans are acrylamide-free or make blends with either green or medium-roasted beans. Alternatively, conducting precise experiments to identify an optimal point on the roasting curve where acrylamide levels are minimized without sacrificing the desired light roast characteristics may prove effective. Adjusting the roast to a slightly darker profile could also be considered, allowing the process to reach the phase where acrylamide degradation begins, thereby reducing its final content. This approach necessitates careful calibration to ensure the maintenance of the unique flavor profile associated with light roasts.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, D.W.L.; methodology, D.W.L., S.S. and C.M.B.-U.; validation, D.W.L. and C.M.B.-U.; formal analysis, D.W.L.; investigation, D.W.L. and C.M.B.-U.; resources, S.S. and D.W.L.; data curation, D.W.L.; writing—original draft preparation, D.W.L.; writing—review and editing, C.M.B.-U. and S.S.; supervision, D.W.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The laboratory teams of the plant-based foods and NMR departments at CVUA Karlsruhe and of the beverages department at CVUA Stuttgart are thanked for excellent technical assistance. The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance of ChatGPT (version GPT-4o), developed by OpenAI, San Francisco, CA, USA.

Conflicts of Interest

S.S. is the owner of Coffee Consulate, Mannheim, Germany. Coffee Consulate is an independent training and research center. However, S.S. reports that there is no conflict of interest related to the work under consideration. The other authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

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Proceedings 109 00011 g001
Figure 1. Photograph of a typical Arabic coffee prepared from very light-roasted beans, more resembling tea than coffee (own photo by the authors).
Figure 1. Photograph of a typical Arabic coffee prepared from very light-roasted beans, more resembling tea than coffee (own photo by the authors).
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Figure 2. Representative photograph of two light-, two medium-, and one dark-roasted Arabic coffees at a roaster in Bahrain (from left to right) (own photo by the authors).
Figure 2. Representative photograph of two light-, two medium-, and one dark-roasted Arabic coffees at a roaster in Bahrain (from left to right) (own photo by the authors).
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Table 1. Acrylamide analysis results (LC/MS/MS) of coffee samples roasted in Bahrain.
Table 1. Acrylamide analysis results (LC/MS/MS) of coffee samples roasted in Bahrain.
Sample No.Origin According to LabelingRoast DegreeAcrylamide [µg/kg] 1
1Harrar, EthiopiaLight902 ± 41
2YemenLight327 ± 2
3Lugmati, EthiopiaLight648 ± 1
4Lugmati, EthiopiaLight716 ± 13
5Harrar, EthiopiaMedium184 ± 10
6IndiaMedium453 ± 12
7BrasilMedium47 ± 11
8Lugmati, EthiopiaDark72 ± 1
9ColombiaMedium50 ± 8
10BrazilDark<10 2
1 Average and standard deviation (n = 2). 2 Value below the limit of quantification.
Table 2. Comparison of acrylamide analysis results from previous studies with current results of official monitoring in Baden-Württemberg, Germany (updated from [33]).
Table 2. Comparison of acrylamide analysis results from previous studies with current results of official monitoring in Baden-Württemberg, Germany (updated from [33]).
Category According to EU Regulation 2017/2158 [38]Year of AnalysisNumber of SamplesAverage [µg/kg]Median [µg/kg]90th Percentile [µg/kg]
Roast coffee2002 (data from [36])5303313461
Roast coffee2015 (data from [33])4118130138
Roast coffee2018 (data from [33])22195165306
Roast coffee2019–2024 (this study, LC/MS/MS)53188167230
Roast coffee2019–2024 (this study, NMR screening)693166161273
Instant (soluble coffee)2013 (data from [33])6642686831
Instant (soluble coffee)2015 (data from [33])7483356805
Instant (soluble coffee)2016 (data from [33])5379269664
Instant (soluble coffee)2018 (data from [33])13555600842
Instant (soluble coffee)2019–2024 (this study, LC/MS/MS)5591535702
Coffee substitutes exclusively from cereals2013–2018 (data from [33])6401418563
Coffee substitutes exclusively from cereals2019–2024 (this study, LC/MS/MS)16464454645
Coffee substitutes from a mixture of cereals and chicory2012–2018 (data from [33])16587525805
Coffee substitutes from a mixture of cereals and chicory2019–2024 (this study, LC/MS/MS)16583527863
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Breitling-Utzmann, C.M.; Schwarz, S.; Lachenmeier, D.W. Acrylamide Levels and Associated Health Risks in Traditional Arabic Coffee Roasts. Proceedings 2024, 109, 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/ICC2024-18170

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Breitling-Utzmann CM, Schwarz S, Lachenmeier DW. Acrylamide Levels and Associated Health Risks in Traditional Arabic Coffee Roasts. Proceedings. 2024; 109(1):11. https://doi.org/10.3390/ICC2024-18170

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Breitling-Utzmann, Carmen M., Steffen Schwarz, and Dirk W. Lachenmeier. 2024. "Acrylamide Levels and Associated Health Risks in Traditional Arabic Coffee Roasts" Proceedings 109, no. 1: 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/ICC2024-18170

APA Style

Breitling-Utzmann, C. M., Schwarz, S., & Lachenmeier, D. W. (2024). Acrylamide Levels and Associated Health Risks in Traditional Arabic Coffee Roasts. Proceedings, 109(1), 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/ICC2024-18170

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