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Article

Assessment of the Nitrification Inhibitor Nitrapyrin on Nitrogen Losses and Brassica oleracea Growth: A Preliminary Sustainable Research

by
Mariangela Triozzi
1,*,
Annamaria Ilacqua
1,
Marina Tumolo
1,
Valeria Ancona
2 and
Daniela Losacco
3,4
1
Water Research Institute, National Research Council of Italy, 70132 Bari, Italy
2
Construction Technology Institute, National Research Council of Italy, 70124 Bari, Italy
3
Department of Biology, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70126 Bari, Italy
4
ReAgri S.r.l., 74016 Massafra, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Nitrogen 2025, 6(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6010015
Submission received: 3 December 2024 / Revised: 7 February 2025 / Accepted: 7 March 2025 / Published: 12 March 2025
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Abstract

:
The use of nitrification inhibitors (NIs) with nitrogen fertilizers represents an effective strategy to reduce nitrogen loss. In addition, nitrification inhibitors are widely applied to improve agricultural yield. However, it is necessary to continue investigating the crop-specific agricultural practice. In this study, a nitrapyrin-based nitrification inhibitor was used to assess its effects on Brassica oleracea L. var. botrytis growth and on the environment. In a pot experiment, cauliflower plants were grown in fertilized soils based on calcium nitrate (SF) and SF + nitrapyrin. At the end of the experiment, the content of nitrogen compounds in soil and percolation water and the cauliflower yield were determined, and the plant tissues were characterized by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. The application of the NI significantly reduced nitrogen losses, increasing nutrient availability in the soil and the element’s absorption in the plant. Co-application of fertilizers and NIs reduced N O 3 − leaching from 925 to 294 mg/L. Plant tissue characterization by FTIR spectroscopy highlighted variations in the functional groups in response to the application of NIs. These results suggest that applying nitrogen fertilizer in combination with nitrapyrin can mitigate nitrate pollution and improve element absorption and plant growth. Our research has shown that application methods and cropping systems need to be studied to maximize the effectiveness of nitrapyrin-based NIs.

1. Introduction

Nitrogen (N) is an essential macronutrient for optimal plant growth, along with potassium and phosphorus. This nutrient is necessary for various physiological processes, including flowering, the synthesis of plant metabolites, and photosynthesis [1]. Ammonium nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen are the primary forms of mineral nitrogen absorbed by plant roots.
To meet the increasing global population and food demand, large amounts of nitrogen-based fertilizers are used in agriculture [2]. Indeed, nitrogen from agricultural fertilizers is a crucial nutrient for ensuring plant growth and yield [3,4]. However, the excessive application of mineral N fertilizers can lead to soil nitrogen overload and environmental pollution.
Nitrate is a major groundwater pollutant worldwide, posing a significant risk to drinking water quality and the environment [5]. Excess nitrate is generally lost through leaching of N O 3 − into watercourses and the volatilization and emissions of N O 2   and N 2 O   into the air [6]. Nitrate water pollution contributes to eutrophication, leading to hypoxia, biodiversity loss, and risks to wildlife and human health [7].
Over the past 20 years, the use of nitrogen fertilizers in agriculture has increased. In 2021, the distribution of nitrogen fertilizers reached 1,193,009 tons. In 2020, the demand for nitrogen fertilizers was 1,191,765 tons, marking an increase of 103,880 tons compared to 2019 [8]. Additionally, the global use of chemical nitrogen fertilizers is expected to rise. Xiong et al. [9] predict a demand of approximately 240 million tons by 2050. Excess nitrogen in agroecosystems contributes to environmental pollution. Therefore, it is essential to implement sustainable agricultural practices and effective strategies to mitigate nitrate contamination from agriculture.
There is a global trend toward the use of high-efficiency fertilizers synthesized with nitrification inhibitors [10]. In recent years, N-(n-Butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT), dicyandiamide (DCD), 3,4-dimethylpyrazole phosphate (DMPP), and nitrapyrin have been the most widely used urease and nitrification inhibitors in agroecosystems worldwide [11]. DCD and DMPP are predominantly used in Europe, as they can be easily mixed with nitrogen fertilizers [12,13]. Moreover, their efficiency varies depending on soil physicochemical properties, field bioactivity, and biological processes [14].
Nitrapyrin, specifically 2-chloro-6-(trichloromethyl) pyridine, was the first nitrification inhibitor introduced to the market and remains the most extensively researched inhibitor. Nitrapyrin-based nitrification inhibitors effectively reduce nitrate nitrogen formation by inhibiting the activity of ammonia monooxygenase (AMO), an enzyme characteristic of soil bacteria. This enzymatic system is a key component in nitrogen transformation by microorganisms involved in soil nitrification. As a result, the leaching of nitrogen compounds and N2O emissions from agricultural sources are both reduced [15]. Yang et al. demonstrated a positive correlation between the application of nitrapyrin in urea-fertilized soils and the reduction of nitrogen compound leaching. Similarly, research [16,17] reported a decrease in nitrate pollution in agroecosystems following the use of nitrapyrin. Their study showed an increase in maize biomass yield by 4% and 13%, attributed to greater nitrogen uptake by the plant. Another study observed a 10–17% improvement in rice production yield in soils treated with nitrogen fertilizers and nitrapyrin. Furthermore, research has shown that the application of nitrification inhibitors enhances nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) [18]. Temperature plays a crucial role in the effectiveness of nitrapyrin. The molecule’s instability and susceptibility to high temperatures limit its action, posing a challenge for its widespread use in agriculture [19]. Therefore, the application strategy of nitrification inhibitors is critical to ensuring their effectiveness and stability [20]. To enhance the impact of nitrapyrin in agricultural soils, researchers commonly emulsify [21] or encapsulate the molecule.
N-Lock™ (Corteva Agriscience, Cremona, Italy) is a nitrification inhibitor (or nitrogen stabilizer) designed to slow the nitrification process, keeping nitrogen available to crops for longer to optimize yield and quality (Figure 1). N-Lock™ consists of nitrapyrin in a water-based microencapsulated formulation. Previous studies on the effectiveness of nitrapyrin as a nitrification inhibitor have highlighted its ability to slow nitrification in soil and reduce nitrate leaching by 7–27% [22]. Giacometti et al. [22] demonstrated a reduction in nitrate leaching after 28 days of incubating N-Lock™ with pig slurry and anaerobic digestate. The study showed that nitrapyrin promoted nitrogen immobilization by bacteria, leading to ammoniacal nitrogen accumulation in the topsoil layers. Similarly, research by Papp Zoltán on winter crops reported increased yield, improved gluten and protein quality, and reduced N O 3 − leaching into the aquifer following N-Lock™ application [23].
Most scientific research has focused on the impact of co-applying nitrapyrin with urea or manure on both the environment and crop yield. Additionally, while previous studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of nitrification inhibitors in improving maize and cereal yields, research on their impact on vegetable crops remains limited.
The aim of our study was to evaluate the effect of microencapsulated nitrapyrin applied to inorganic nitrogen fertilizers on cauliflower yield and the reduction of agricultural nitrogen contamination. Additionally, the research aimed to characterize the chemical composition of plant tissues in Brassica oleracea L. var. botrytis using attenuated total reflectance Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR).

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Setup, Treatments, and Sampling

A greenhouse experiment was carried out to investigate the efficiency of a commercial nitrapyrin-based product (N-LockTM, Corteva Agriscience, Cremona, Italy) applied with inorganic nitrogen fertilizer. A greenhouse experiment was conducted at ReAgri S.r.l. (Massafra, Taranto, Italy) between October 2020 and February 2021. Brassica oleracea L. var. botrytis (Akara, Syngenta, Basel, Switzerland) seedlings were transplanted into 40 cm × 37 cm pots. As shown in Figure 2, a plastic sheet was used to prevent the influx of rainwater. A plastic container was placed under each pot to collect the percolation water for analytical purposes.
Three treatments were applied in triplicate: control soil (SC) without any treatments, soil fertilized with calcium nitrate 14.4% N (SF), and SF with the nitrapyrin-based nitrification inhibitor (SFI). Each replicate was conducted in triplicate.
Nitrogen fertilizer was applied at a rate of 130 kg/ha, while 2.5 L/ha of commercial nitrapyrin formulation (equivalent to 200 g of nitrapyrin) was incorporated into the soil during the inflorescence induction phase. The soil pH, electrical conductivity, available phosphorus, ammonium nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, and moisture content were 6.11, 0.73 dS/m, 52 mg/kg, 17,44 mg/L, 0.25 mg/L, and 18.71%, respectively.
Soils (0–20 cm depth) were sampled at the end of the experiment. The percolation water was sampled and filtered through 0.45 µm membrane filters. At the end of the study, cauliflower tissues were sampled for the growth determination parameter and FTIR analysis.
The end of the experiment coincided with the achievement of a cauliflower which was of a size typically required by the vegetable market.

2.2. Soil Properties

The soil pH value, electrical conductivity (EC), and water content were measured based on the Italian Official Methods of Soil Chemistry approved by the Minister for Agricultural Policies [24]. The total nitrogen (N), total carbon (C), and total organic carbon (TOC) values were determined by an elemental analyzer (Thermo Flash 2000, CHNS-O Analyzer, Thermo Scientific, Eindhoven, The Netherland) and TOC analyzer (TOC-L, Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan), respectively. The Olsen method was applied to evaluate available phosphorus (AvP) in soils [25].

2.3. Ammonium and Nitrate Measurements in Soil and Percolation Water

In environmental matrices, nitrate ( N O 3 − )   and ammonium ( N H 4 + )   were analyzed by ionic chromatography with the Metrohm 930 compact IC flex [26] and by spectrophotometry with the PerkinElmer spectrometer Lambda 950, respectively [27]. A sampled soil aliquot was used for the extraction of inorganic nitrogen for the quantification of the two nitrogen forms under study [1].

2.4. Yield Parameters

At cauliflower harvest time, yield parameters were determined on each experimental line, and then curds and leaves were collected. The curd size and leaf length were measured using ImageJ (Standard Edition 8). The weight of the cauliflower was determined using a balance. Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) data were assessed in the greenhouse with a Trimble GreenSeeker handheld crop sensor.

2.5. Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy Analysis

In this study, ATR-FTIR spectra achieved from 4 tissues (roots, stems, leaves, and curds) were compared. All sampled fractions were dried in an oven at 60 °C and ground in a mortar to obtain a fine powder. The spectra of cauliflower tissues were characterized using ATR-FTIR using a Nicolet Summit FTIR Spectrometer (ThermoFisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) equipped with an Everest ATR with a diamond crystal plate and a DTGS KBr detector. Measurements were recorded at a resolution of 4 cm−1 and 32 scans in the range of 400 to 4000 cm−1 using the [5] OMNIC 8.5 software (ThermoFisher, Waltham, MA, USA).

2.6. Statistical Analysis

To evaluate the effects of the nitrification inhibitor on the chemical soil parameters, the concentration of nitrogen compounds in the percolation water, and plant parameters, a one-way ANOVA analysis was performed. In addition, multivariate analyses were conducted to establish the potential relationship between treatments and changes in environmental samples. These analyses were carried out on OriginPro 2022 software (OriginLab, Northampton, MA, USA), with a p < 0.05 correlation at resulted in statistically significant.

3. Results

3.1. The Impact of N-Stabilizer on the Soil Properties in the System of Cauliflower Mesocosm

Soil analysis indicated significant changes in total carbon content, total organic carbon (TOC), available phosphorus, and electrical conductivity following NI application. However, no significant differences were observed in pH, total nitrogen content, or the carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio.
Adding nitrapyrin did not alter the soil pH significantly, maintaining values of 5.38 (SFI) and 5.23 (SF). The most notable variation was observed in electrical conductivity, which increased to 4.61 dS/m in the SFI treatment compared to 2.32 dS/m in the SF treatment (Table 1).
Comparing the treatments, SFI demonstrated the highest variation in electrical conductivity, equal to 4.61 ± 0.03 dS/m. The soil water content varied from 14.03 ± 1.10 to 19.04 ± 2.18%, with the lowest value in the SF line. With regards to the nitrapyrin-based treatment, the soil total C and carbon-to-nitrogen ratio values were lower than for the treatment with only nitrogen fertilizer (20.9 ± 2.53% and 77.16 ± 26.2%, respectively). Similarly, the total nitrogen value of SF was higher than the SFI line (Table 1). Other parameters that differed between SF and SFI lines were the assimilable phosphorus and TOC, with a lower value in soil treated with the nitrification inhibitor (Figure 3).

3.2. Nitrogen Dynamics in Environmental Matrices

In order to evaluate the effects of nitrogen stabilizers on mitigating N contamination in agriculture, the ammonium and nitrate contents of environmental matrices were investigated. As regards soil, no significant differences in the ammonium contents were detected in the different treatments. As shown in Table 2, the concentration of ammoniacal nitrogen was 7.04 and 6.35 mg/L, in soils with and without nitrapyrin. The addition of nitrapyrin reduced the nitrate ion concentration in the SFI line (7.55 mg/L), probably due to the inhibition of the nitrification process. In the control soil, the concentration of the two nitrogen forms was 1.42 and 0.25 mg/L for ammonium and nitrate, respectively. The application of fertilizer resulted in a nitrate concentration of only 22 mg/L (Table 2). Fertilizer amended with N-LockTM significantly decreased nitrate leaching in the cauliflower mesocosms experiment. The nitrate concentrations were determined to be 550.05, 924.80, and 293.98 mg/L in the SC, SF, and SFI lines. In both lines treated with agricultural products, the ammonium ion concentrations were almost similar.
In the percolation water of the SC experiments, the ammonium concentration was equal to 0.39 mg/L.

3.3. Effects of N-Stabilizer on Cauliflower Yield

A comprehensive analysis of plant vigor and cauliflower curd size in all experimental lines was carried out. The biomass and the quality of cauliflower products destined for the market were influenced differently by the various treatments. Cauliflower biomass and leaf size were significantly larger in plants treated with and without the N-LockTM. In fact, the increase in the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI)—an agronomic parameter that describes the plant’s level of vigor, then biomass—was affected by the nitrogen fertilizer treatment. As shown in Figure 4, the NDVI value was 0.77 and 0.78 in plants subjected to the two agricultural treatments compared to the control plants (0.64). Similarly, the leaf size was 52 cm and 54 cm in experimental lines SF and SFI, respectively. The application of nitrapyrin increased the curd size compared to the curd treated with the nitrogen fertilizer alone (Figure 4).

3.4. Molecular Chemistry of Plant Tissues by Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy Analysis

In this study, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy was applied to determine the functional groups present in the plant extract. FTIR uses IR radiation to vibrate the molecular bonds inside the extract that absorbs it [28]. Each IR spectrum consists of a bending vibration, associated with the change in bond angles, and a stretching vibration relative to the changes in the length of the bond [29]. Through this method, it was possible to characterize several phytochemical constituents important from the nutritional and pharmaceutical points of view.
The FTIR method results of Brassica oleracea (Table 3) show the presence of 7 functional groups and 3 high-intensity peaks at 3290, 1603, and 1019 cm−1, associated with the presence of alcohols (O-H stretching), amide stretching protein bands (C=N), and sulfone stretching bands (S=N), respectively. Hydrocarbon compounds contain only C-H and C-C bonds, but there is much information to be obtained from IR spectra resulting from C-H stretching and C-H bending. The presence of a peak at −2900 cm−1 is assigned to the C-H stretching of alkanes. As shown in Table 3, the cauliflower stem treated with nitrapyrin is characterized by the presence of a peak at 1500 cm−1, typical of nitro compounds. The medium peak at 1400 cm−1 and a slightly strong peak at 1051 cm−1 were also assigned to sulfone stretching vibrations in sulforaphane/glucosinolates.

4. Discussion

Improving the use of nitrogen (N) and reducing nitrate loss represents a global agricultural challenge. Thus, effective knowledge of nitrification inhibitors (NIs) and their efficiency in agriculture is the subject of several studies. Nitrapyrin is a molecule that can reduce the conversion of ammonium nitrogen to nitrate in soil, improving soil properties and reducing nitrate leaching [30,31].
We hypothesized that the effectiveness of nitrapyrin changes based on soil type [32], agricultural practice, and crops. Overall, the co-application of nitrapyrin with nitrogen fertilizers increased the electrical conductivity (EC) of the soil and reduced the total organic carbon (TOC) and available phosphorus (Table 1, Figure 3). The NI significantly reduced nitrogen losses [33], increasing N availability in the soil and the element’s absorption in the plant [34]. Co-application of nitrogen fertilizers and nitrapyrin reduced the NO3- concentration in soil from 22 mg/L to 7.55 mg/L, caused by the inhibition of nitrification in the soil microbial community [32,35]. As a result, the leaching of nitric nitrogen was also reduced. As shown in Table 2, nitrate values in the percolation water were 924.80 and 293.98 mg/L in soils without and with the nitrogen inhibitor, respectively.
Yang et al. [36] described a correlation between NI use and total organic carbon decrease, in line with our research. This result suggests that nitrapyrin co-applied with fertilizer improves the availability of nitrogen compounds, and thus the activity of the microbial community and TOC mineralization rate [37,38]. We also found that the decrease in TOC in soil increased the potential for phosphorus adsorption, which was considered in line with the effects reported by several previous works [39,40].
Regarding soil pH, researchers have hypothesized that nitrapyrin can model the bacterial soil community by reducing the acidification of the environmental matrix due to the nitrification process [40]. In this study, soils with and without the addition of nitrapyrin diverged minimally in terms of pH values; the pH was 5.38 and 5.23 in soil with and without the NI, which is similar to what has been reported in previous studies [41].
The application of nitrapyrin-based nitrification inhibitors has shown to effectively reduce nitrogen compounds and improve yield in different cropping systems [42,43]. Despite this, our results showed that cauliflower growth was significantly influenced by N fertilizer treatment [19]. A slight improvement in Brassica oleracea development was observed in plants treated with nitrapyrin (Figure 5). From these results, we hypothesized that the NI’s effectiveness in limiting nitrate loss and increasing nitrogen adsorption increased the weight of the cauliflower product destined for the market [44].
The characterization of plant tissues of Brassica oleracea by ATR-FTIR highlighted for the first time results on the nature of functional groups in response to the application of nitrapyrin-based nitrification inhibitors. Figure 6 shows the IR spectra and absorption peaks of the various functional groups associated with the treatments evaluated in this research (treatment with N fertilizer, treatment with N fertilizer, and nitrapyrin). The highest intensity absorption peaks were observed in the leaves, roots, and inflorescence, at 3300 cm−1 [45,46] and in the fingerprint region of 1600–800 cm−1 [47]. Changes in the intensity and presence of common peaks in the plant’s IR spectra are related to environmental variability and the amount of nutrients applied in agroecosystems [46]. Variations in absorbance were observed at 1600, 1400, and 1000 cm−1 corresponding to amide stretching protein bands and sulfone stretching vibrations in sulforaphane/glucosinolates, respectively.

5. Conclusions

Our preliminary research provided new insights into the effects of a N fertilizer applied with nitrapyrin-based inhibitors and the reduction of N loss in the environment.
In our tested agroecosystem, the nitrapyrin-based nitrification inhibitor mitigated nitrate pollution and improved element uptake and plant growth. The NI was not negatively effective towards soil properties; on the contrary, it is important to highlight that NI application improved the availability of the main soil macroelements (N, C, and P) for cauliflower growth. The leached nitrate concentration was equal to 293.98 mg/L for the experimental line based on nitrapyrin. A nitrate increase of about 630 mg/L was determined in the mesocosm percolated water without nitrapyrin. The application of N-LockTM did not negatively affect the cauliflower yield. At the end of the experiment, the cauliflower weight was slightly higher in the curd sampled from SFI soil. To date, there is no research available on the analysis of infrared spectra on the effect of nitrapyrin-based nitrification inhibitors in Brassica oleracea. In light of the above, this study characterized cauliflower tissues by ATR-FTIR using sustainable practices to reduce the use of mineral N fertilizers.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, D.L.; methodology, D.L., M.T. (Mariangela Triozzi) and M.T. (Marina Tumolo); validation, D.L. and M.T. (Mariangela Triozzi); formal analysis, D.L.; investigation, D.L. and M.T. (Mariangela Triozzi); resources, V.A.; data curation, D.L., M.T. (Mariangela Triozzi), A.I. and M.T. (Marina Tumolo); writing—original draft preparation, D.L. and M.T. (Mariangela Triozzi); writing—review and editing, D.L., M.T. (Mariangela Triozzi), A.I. and M.T. (Marina Tumolo); visualization, D.L., M.T. (Mariangela Triozzi), A.I., M.T. (Marina Tumolo) and V.A.; supervision, D.L. and V.A.; project administration, D.L.; funding acquisition, V.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by project “Attuazione Direttiva 91/676/CEE relativa alla protezione delle acque dall’inquinamento provocato dai nitrati provenienti da fonti agricole-art. 92 del D.Lgs. 152/2006-Revisione delle Zone Vulnerabili da Nitrati di origine agricola e aggiornamento del Programma d’Azione Nitrati-Convenzione tra Regione Puglia e CNR-IRSA di Bari del 27/11/2019”.

Data Availability Statement

Data is contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the ReAgri S.r.l. company for the experimental setup and the agronomic support, and Pasquale Carmignano, Francesco Acquasanta, Fabio Fedele, and Stefano Convertini for their agronomic support. We also thank Pietro Cotugno for the assistance in the chemical analyses, Claudia Campanale for the scientific support, and Vito Felice Uricchio for coordinating the project that funded the research.

Conflicts of Interest

Daniela Losacco was employed by the company ReAgri S.r.l., Massafra, Italy. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Representation of the action of a nitrification inhibitor (N-LockTM, Corteva Agriscience, Cremona, Italy) in agroecosystems.
Figure 1. Representation of the action of a nitrification inhibitor (N-LockTM, Corteva Agriscience, Cremona, Italy) in agroecosystems.
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Figure 2. Experimental set-up. From (left) to (right): greenhouse for cauliflower cultivation, detailed overview of crop mesocosms, cauliflower at induction phase of inflorescence, N-LockTM treatment, and cauliflower at growth phase of curd.
Figure 2. Experimental set-up. From (left) to (right): greenhouse for cauliflower cultivation, detailed overview of crop mesocosms, cauliflower at induction phase of inflorescence, N-LockTM treatment, and cauliflower at growth phase of curd.
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Figure 3. Soil parameter changes in the cauliflower mesocosms experiment. The lines indicated the error standard of means (n = 3). Control soil (SC), soil fertilized with calcium nitrate (SF), and SI with nitrapyrin-based nitrification inhibitor (FSI).
Figure 3. Soil parameter changes in the cauliflower mesocosms experiment. The lines indicated the error standard of means (n = 3). Control soil (SC), soil fertilized with calcium nitrate (SF), and SI with nitrapyrin-based nitrification inhibitor (FSI).
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Figure 4. Effect of agricultural practice on normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and nitrification inhibitor (SFI). Each value was reported as means ± standard errors (n = 3).
Figure 4. Effect of agricultural practice on normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and nitrification inhibitor (SFI). Each value was reported as means ± standard errors (n = 3).
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Figure 5. Nitrogen budgets of Brassica oleracea treated with and without the nitrapyrin-based nitrification inhibitor.
Figure 5. Nitrogen budgets of Brassica oleracea treated with and without the nitrapyrin-based nitrification inhibitor.
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Figure 6. FTIR spectra of cauliflower functional groups under treatment with N fertilizer (left) and N fertilizer with nitrapyrin (right).
Figure 6. FTIR spectra of cauliflower functional groups under treatment with N fertilizer (left) and N fertilizer with nitrapyrin (right).
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Table 1. Mean values of the soil properties were measured in experimental lines. For each value, the SE of the mean (n = 3) is given, with a significance equal to p < 0.05.
Table 1. Mean values of the soil properties were measured in experimental lines. For each value, the SE of the mean (n = 3) is given, with a significance equal to p < 0.05.
Soil PropertiesTreatments
Control SoilSoil
Fertilized		Soil Fertilized
Inhibitor-Based
SCSFSFI
pH (H2O)5.14 ± 0.125.23 ± 0.025.38 ± 0.12
Electrical conductivity (dS/m)1.58 ± 0.012.32 ± 0.034.61 ± 0.03
Water content (%)19.04 ± 2.1814.03 ± 1.1015 ± 0.68
Total N (%)0.29 ± 0.090.40 ± 0.010.15 ± 0.05
Total C (%)29.4 ± 2.3735 ± 1.5520.9 ± 2.53
Total organic carbon (%)9 ± 0.622 ± 4.0410.7 ± 0.88
Available P (mg/kg)26.7 ± 1.928.6 ± 0.0117. ± 0.01
C/N116 ± 10.44125 ± 4.0277. ± 26.2
Table 2. Dynamics of ammoniacal and nitric nitrogen in environmental matrices according to one-way ANOVA analysis. For each value, the SE of the mean (n = 3) is given, with significant values at p < 0.05.
Table 2. Dynamics of ammoniacal and nitric nitrogen in environmental matrices according to one-way ANOVA analysis. For each value, the SE of the mean (n = 3) is given, with significant values at p < 0.05.
Experimental LinesSoil
Ammonium		Soil
Nitrate		Water
Ammonium		Water
Nitrate
mg/Lmg/L
Soil fertilized 7.04 ± 2.722 ± 6.423.15 ± 1.29924.80 ± 149.68
Soil fertilized + nitrification inhibitor6.35 ± 2.167.55 ± 5.151.71 ± 0.72293.98 ± 52.82
Table 3. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy of cauliflower vegetable organs from different treatments.
Table 3. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy of cauliflower vegetable organs from different treatments.
TissueFunctional GroupPeak Value (cm−1)
SCSFSFI
RootO-H3284 (0.03)3283 (0.13)3282.43 (0.21)
C-H2918 (0.03)2920 (0.11)2922.18 (0.19)
C=N1604 (0.03)1603 (0.15)1601.78 (0.25)
C=O-N1396 (0.03)1410 (0.14)1374.57 (0.28)
C-O1234 (0.03)1243 (0.13)1238.27 (0.24)
S=N1019 (0.08)1019 (0.29)1022.7 (0.43)
StemO-Hn/dn/d3323.67 (0.12)
C-H2924.97 (0.14)2920.79 (0.15)2882.11 (0.1)
C=N1603.96 (0.15)1604.45 (0.17)1605.72 (0.12)
N-On/dn/d1508.68 (0.12)
C=O-N1370.83 (0.15)1413.79 (0.18)1371.04 (0.14)
C-O1238.28 (0.16)1231.67 (0.18)1236.99 (0.13)
S=N1018.87 (0.23)1024.12 (0.27)1023.48 (0.23)
LeavesO-H3300.77 (0.23)3264.93 (0.17)3276.12 (0.22)
C-H2919.43 (0.19)2917.44 (0.23)2919.43 (0.22)
C=N1606.53 (0.22)1586.13 (0.28)1605.34 (0.32)
C=O-Nn/d1401.94 (0.27)1401.62 (0.33)
C-O1242.25 (0.2)n/dn/d
S=N1012.33 (0.45)1016.76 (0.37)1024.1 (0.41)
InflorescenceO-H3278.6 (0.19)3277.69 (0.22)3277.49 (0.16)
C-H2919.75 (0.18)2922.04 (0.2)2925.83 (0.15)
C=N1601.9 (0.21)1621.92 (0.24)1632.45 (0.18)
C=O-N1400.94 (0.21)1402.19 (0.24)1376.21 (0.18)
C-O1238.62 (0.2)1238.03 (0.22)n/d
S=N1023.52 (0.34)1016.11 (0.38)1026.99 (0.21)
n/d: not detected.
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Triozzi, M.; Ilacqua, A.; Tumolo, M.; Ancona, V.; Losacco, D. Assessment of the Nitrification Inhibitor Nitrapyrin on Nitrogen Losses and Brassica oleracea Growth: A Preliminary Sustainable Research. Nitrogen 2025, 6, 15. https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6010015

AMA Style

Triozzi M, Ilacqua A, Tumolo M, Ancona V, Losacco D. Assessment of the Nitrification Inhibitor Nitrapyrin on Nitrogen Losses and Brassica oleracea Growth: A Preliminary Sustainable Research. Nitrogen. 2025; 6(1):15. https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6010015

Chicago/Turabian Style

Triozzi, Mariangela, Annamaria Ilacqua, Marina Tumolo, Valeria Ancona, and Daniela Losacco. 2025. "Assessment of the Nitrification Inhibitor Nitrapyrin on Nitrogen Losses and Brassica oleracea Growth: A Preliminary Sustainable Research" Nitrogen 6, no. 1: 15. https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6010015

APA Style

Triozzi, M., Ilacqua, A., Tumolo, M., Ancona, V., & Losacco, D. (2025). Assessment of the Nitrification Inhibitor Nitrapyrin on Nitrogen Losses and Brassica oleracea Growth: A Preliminary Sustainable Research. Nitrogen, 6(1), 15. https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6010015

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