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Article

The Effects of Different Irrigation Programs and Nitrogen Doses on Vegetative and Generative Development Characteristics of Cyclamen persicum Mill.

by
Cenk Küçükyumuk
1,* and
Zeliha Küçükyumuk
2
1
Vocational Training School, Department of Park and Gardening Plants, İzmir Demokrasi University, 35140 İzmir, Türkiye
2
Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Faculty of Agriculture, Isparta Applied Sciences University, 32200 Isparta, Türkiye
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Horticulturae 2025, 11(4), 429; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11040429
Submission received: 11 February 2025 / Revised: 9 April 2025 / Accepted: 10 April 2025 / Published: 17 April 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ornamental Plants under Abiotic Stresses)
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Abstract

:
Ornamental plant growing is carried out in relatively small areas compared to other agricultural production areas, but the use of basic inputs such as water and fertilizer is intensive. Quality in cyclamen and for other similar ornamental plants is related to the amount and quality of the flowers. Irrigation and fertilization are very effective applications of these parameters. This study was conducted in Türkiye to detect the effects of different irrigation programs and nitrogen doses on Cyclamen persicum Mill. in 2023–2024. There were 12 treatments in total. Three different irrigation programs were used. When 20% (I1), 40% (I2), and 60% (I3) of the available water holding capacity (AWHC) in the mixed soil were used, the irrigation water was applied in each irrigation until the available soil water reached the field capacity. There were four nitrogen doses for each irrigation program: N0: 0, N1: 10 kg N da−1, N2: 20 kg N da−1, and N3: 30 kg N da−1. All the parameters were affected negatively by water stress. The 20 kg da−1 nitrogen doses increased the number of flowers. Increasing water stress levels negatively affected the Pn. The zero nitrogen dose treatments (N0) provided the lowest average Pn with 7.53 μmol m−2 s−1. The I1 (frequency irrigation) irrigation program and N3 nitrogen dose can be applied together to obtain the best vegetative growth. As another option to obtain the most generative growth, the I1 (frequency irrigation) irrigation program and the N2 nitrogen dose can be applied together.

1. Introduction

Ornamental plants are defined as plants grown for aesthetic, functional, and economic purposes; they show visual effectiveness with their buds, flowers, fruits, leaves, branches, or forms, or they stand out with these features. Ornamental plant cultivation in the world increased by 17.3% in the last 9 years between 2013 and 2022, reaching 1.981.682 ha. Turkey’s ornamental plant production areas increased by 28.9% in the last 10 years, increasing from 4.513 ha to 5.815 ha between 2013 and 2023 [1]. The economic value of ornamental plants is worth EUR 68.780.500 in the world [2]. The rate of natural flower bulbs produced in ornamental plants is known to be 1.23% (4.858 ha, 25,337,330 units). When export rates by species are examined in Turkey, it is observed that cyclamen is an important species with a rate of approximately 9% [3]. Cyclamen is particularly essential in traditional and modern medicine, in addition to its decorative and commercial importance [4,5,6].
Cyclamen has come to the fore in ornamental plant cultivation and trade in recent years and is among the plant species that are frequently used as ornamental plants and are internationally traded the most today [7]. As it is in the world, the use of plants both indoors and outdoors in our country is increasing every year [8]. Cyclamen, which is also an ornamental plant because it can bloom at different times, has been used as a raw material in the pharmaceutical and chemical sectors due to its biochemical substances, such as gum, sugar, etc. Cyclamen, which is also an ornamental plant due to its being a species that can bloom in different periods, has been used as a raw material in the pharmaceutical and chemical sectors due to biochemical substances such as gum, sugar, etc. [9,10,11,12]. The genus Cyclamen belongs to the Myrcinaceae (Primulaceae in the previous classification) family and is distributed around the world with 23 species [13,14,15]. Ten species of cyclamen grow naturally in Turkey, and six of these species are endemic to our country [15]. Since the Cyclamen persicum Mill. species produces larger and taller flowers, commercial varieties are generally developed from this species.
In plant production, quality refers to the good vegetative and generative development of the plant and high yield. Although ornamental plant cultivation is carried out in relatively small areas compared to other agricultural production areas, the use of basic inputs such as water and fertilizer is intensive. Photosynthesis, biomass production, and dry matter have an important role in the visual quality of ornamental plants. For these processes of plants to not be negatively affected, they should not be under water stress [16,17]. Therefore, optimizing water management is an important step in determining the effects of water on the growth process and visual quality of ornamental plants [18,19].
Product quality in cyclamen and similar ornamental plants is related to the amount and quality of the flowers. Irrigation and fertilization are very effective applications of these parameters. In a study conducted by Salman et al. (2016), it was reported that quality is low in cyclamen cultivation in Turkey, and the main factor is the lack of information about the producers [8]. It was reported that in the production of healthy, high-quality, high-market cyclamen plants, producers should be made more aware of cultivation, and quality should be emphasized. Water stress is a key factor for both vegetative and generative traits [20]. Boztok (2002) reported that irrigation should be reduced after flowering in cyclamen and that the plant should be left to rest, but did not recommend an irrigation program (when to water and how much water to use) [21].
Vidalie (1990) reported that cyclamen is very sensitive to nitrogen, and in the case of excessive application, the green parts of the plant will develop more, and flower development will be negatively affected [22]. Increasing nitrogen supply can enhance plant growth and enable plants to produce flowers of higher quality [23,24,25]. Quemada and Gabriel (2016) reported that increasing nitrogen supply may enhance drought tolerance in plants [26]. Excess nitrogen prolongs the vegetative development period of the plant and delays flowering [27]. No application recommendations, such as water requirements, irrigation schedule, and appropriate nitrogen dose, have been found for commercial cyclamen (C. persicum Mill.). For these reasons, this study aims to fill the gap in the literature in this field.
There are very few studies in the literature on water stress, irrigation programs, and plant nutrition. In addition, no study has been found in the literature that includes both applications. The data to be obtained from the project will be an example study for other plants grown intensively among ornamental plants and will create sub-data for similar studies.
In this study, the aim was to determine the effects of using different irrigation programs and nitrogen doses on the vegetative and generative growth and some of the physiological parameters (net photosynthesis rate and stomatal conductance) of C. persicum Mill.

2. Materials and Methods

There were 12 different treatments, including 3 different irrigation levels and 4 different nitrogen dose applications. Each application had 3 replications; each replication had 3 plants, for a total of 108 plants. The study was planned according to the factorial experimental design in randomized plots. The treatments were randomly distributed to the plots, and 3 pots were used in each plot. The project was carried out in the experimental greenhouse of the Aegean Agricultural Research Institute (Menemen-İzmir, Türkiye), which is affiliated with the General Directorate of Agricultural Research and Policies, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. The greenhouse dimensions are 35 m × 8 m and have an automatic ventilation system. Cyclamen is planted as a tuber in May–June in the climate conditions of Türkiye and transplanted to pots in August. Then, they are sold as seedlings or can be grown for marketing by growers. The growing period is between September and April–May in greenhouse conditions. Since the plants were grown in the greenhouse from October 2023 to April 2024, in the autumn, winter, and spring (only one month, March) seasons for İzmir, Türkiye, shade treatment was not conducted. The air humidity was between 65% and 70%. The air temperature of the greenhouse was an average of 16 °C. The lamps were positioned so that the average light intensity per m2 was 1000 lux (12 µmol s−1 m−2 at 400–700 nm wavelength). The small plants purchased from the market (Ege Plantek, Torbalı-İzmir, Türkiye) in October (2023) as plants (in the form of tuberous seedlings and 3–4 leaves) were planted in 4 L pots (21 cm diameter × 17.5 cm height) with one plant in each pot. The plants were selected because their growth strengths were close to each other. Some parameters were used for the selection of the plants before the study started. Plants were selected that had 3 or 4 leaves, and plant width was between 3 cm and 4 cm. In the project, a mixture of loamy soil, peat, and manure in a ratio of 1:1:1 was used as potting material. Some chemical and physical properties of the pot soil mixture are shown in Table 1. Irrigation water (EC = 0.35 dS m−1 and SAR = 1.05) was supplied from a well at the Agean Agricultural Research Institute and classified according to the US Salinity Laboratory Graphical System. Irrigation water was C2S1 class, which is suitable for irrigation (C2: 250–750 EC × 106 range and S1 in terms of SAR value) [28].

2.1. Treatments

The seedlings were transplanted into pots on 2 October 2024, and when they had 4–5 leaves, the applications were started on 15 October 2024. Until this date, irrigation water was applied to all the plants in the experiment until the soil water in the potting mixture reached field capacity. Half of the different nitrogen doses were applied on the date of planting to the pots. The rest of them were applied fifteen days after the irrigation programs were started. The study had 3 different irrigation treatments:
I1: When 20% of the available water holding capacity (AWHC) in the mixed soil was used, irrigation water was applied in each irrigation until the available soil water reached the field capacity (no stress);
I2: When 40% of the AWHC in the mixed soil was used, irrigation water was applied in each irrigation until the available soil water reached the field capacity (moderate stress);
I3: When 60% of the AWHC in the mixed soil was used, irrigation water was applied in each irrigation until the available soil water reached the field capacity (severe stress).
The pots were weighed every two days to determine irrigation time. To determine the amounts of irrigation water applied in each irrigation, the field capacity value of the mixed soil in the pots was determined before starting the experiment. For this purpose, five pots containing mixed soil without planting were used. Water was added slowly from the top until water leaked from the bottom of the pots, and this process was repeated a few more times after the leakage stopped. After the leakage completely stopped, the tops of the pots were covered with aluminum foil to prevent evaporation. The pots were weighed after 48 h. The field capacity values were determined by taking the average of the weights. The pot weights and the weights of each plant measured during planting were added to these weights, and the field capacity of each pot was determined [29].
The four different nitrogen doses were applied as nitrogen applications, and ammonium sulfate was used as the nitrogen source. The nitrogen doses were N0: 0, N1: 10 kg N da−1, N2: 20 kg N da−1, and N3: 30 kg N da−1. Nitrogenous fertilizer was applied in two equal doses for each subject; half of the nitrogen dose was mixed into the potting mix with planting, and the remaining half was applied 30 days after the first application. Then, 10 kg da−1 P (phosphorus) and 12.5 kg da−1 K (potassium) were provided by the KH2PO4 source as basic fertilization with the planting to each pot.

2.2. Calculation of Plant Water Consumption

Irrigation water was applied to reach the available water up to field capacity in each irrigation until the programmed irrigations started (2 October 2023). After the programmed irrigations started, the amounts of irrigation water were calculated for each different irrigation level, and irrigation water amounts were applied. Therefore, irrigation water amounts were considered as plant water consumption. The plant water consumption values calculated in weight were converted to volume and expressed as l/plant.

2.3. Net Photosynthetic Rate (Pn) and Stomatal Conductance (gsw)

The Li-Cor 6800 Photosynthesis System (LI-6800XT Portable Photosynthesis System, LI-COR, Lincoln, NE, USA) was used to measure plant net photosynthetic rate (Pn) and stomatal conductance (gsw). Pn and gsw were measured twice after starting water stress treatments (1 December 2023 and 30 March 2024). One plant was selected from each replication for measurements. In total, three different plants were used for Pn and gsw measurements from each treatment. The leaves were used from the sun-exposed mature leaves from different sides of the selected plant in each treatment. At least 3 leaves per plant were sampled between 11:00 and 14:00 h on the day before irrigation. The measurement conditions were leaf chamber PAR (photosynthetically active radiation), 1100 μmol m−2 s−1; leaf to air vapor deficit pressure, 1.6–2.7 kPa; and chamber CO2 concentration, 400 μmol mol−1.

2.4. Vegetative Growth Parameters

All vegetative growth parameters were measured twice during the project: the first measurement was made on 2 October 2023, when the experiment was started. The second measurement was made on 30 March 2024, at the end of the experiment.
Plant width: The width of the plant was measured in cm with a tape measure in the north–south and east–west directions, and the average was considered. The measurements were made of all the plants (nine plants in each application, with three plants in each replication).
Plant height: The length from the pot soil surface to the top leaf was measured in cm with a tape measure, and measurements were made of all the plants (nine plants in each application, with three plants in each replication). To determine the effects of the applications on plant height, measurements were made twice during the project.
Leaf stalk length: The distance from the beginning of the stem to the leaves was measured. The measurements were made of one plant in each replication and three plants in each application, and all the leaf stalk lengths of the plant were measured in cm with a tape measure.

2.5. Generative Growth Parameters

Number of flowers: At the end of the experiment, the number of flowers on all the plants was measured. The flowers on all the plants in the experiment were considered.
Flower stalk length: At the end of the experiment, the flower stalk length of all flowers on a selected plant from each replication was measured with a tape measure (cm).

2.6. Experimental Design and Statistical Analysis

The experiment was carried out according to the factorial experiment design in randomized plots. Irrigation programs constituted the main plot, and nitrogen doses constituted the sub-plots. There were three replications for each treatment, and each replication had three plants. It was planned to have 3 replications in each subject and 3 plants in each replication. A total of 108 plants were used in the project (three irrigation treatments × four nitrogen doses × three replications × 3 plants = 108 plants). The data obtained at the end of the project were subjected to variance analysis using the JMP (JMP 8.0) statistical package program [30], and the differences between the applications were evaluated according to the LSD multiple comparison test.

3. Results

3.1. Plant Water Consumption

The total plant water consumption values for the subjects are given in Table 2. It was determined that the water consumption of the plants decreased as the stress level increased. When soil water decreases in the effective root zone, the plants respond by slowing down their growth. When the plant water consumptions were examined according to the different doses of nitrogen applied, it was seen that ET increased as the nitrogen dose increased at each water level (Figure 1).

3.2. Net Photosynthesis Rate and Stomata Conductance

3.2.1. Net Photosynthesis Rate (Pn)

The Pn measurement was made twice after the water stress treatments: 1 December 2023 and 30 March 2024. The different irrigation programs and nitrogen doses had separate effects on the Pn and were statistically significant in the first measurement (Table 3). Increasing water stress levels negatively affected the Pn. Zero nitrogen dose treatments (N0) provided the lowest average Pn with 7.53 μmol m−2 s−1. Each nitrogen dose was in a different statistical group. Nitrogen applications affected the Pn positively. The highest Pn result was determined in the N3 treatment. The irrigation programs and nitrogen dose interaction affected the Pn statistically (Table 4). Increasing nitrogen doses in level (I1) with no water stress provided the highest Pn results. At the same time, the Pn decreased in each nitrogen dose, as the water stress level increased. The Pn obtained in the second measurement in the I1 treatments was higher than the Pn measured in the first measurement (Figure 2). There were no big differences between the first and second measurements in I2 and I3 treatments according to the Pn results.

3.2.2. Stomatal Conductance (gsw)

The gsw measurements were made with Pn measurements twice, immediately after the water stress treatments: 1 December 2023 and 30 March 2024. The different irrigation programs and nitrogen doses had separate effects on gsw statistically in both measurements (Table 5 and Table 6). Increasing the water stress levels negatively affected gsw. The I1 treatments in the irrigation treatments provided the highest average gsw with 0.305 mol m−2 s−1 and 0.265 mol m−2 s−1 in the first and second measurements, respectively (Figure 3). Each nitrogen dose was in a different statistical group. Increasing the nitrogen applications affected gsw positively. The highest average gsw results were determined in the N3 treatments.

3.3. Measurement of Vegetative Growth Parameters

3.3.1. Plant Width

Plant width measurements were made twice during the cyclamen growing period. According to the results of the first measurement made on 2 October 2023, when treatments started, no statistical difference was determined between the treatments in terms of plant width (Table 7). The results obtained from the first measurement of vegetative parameters (plant width, plant height, and leaf stalk length) show that the plants having close vegetative development size were selected before the study started.
The irrigation level × nitrogen dose interaction was statistically significant (p < 0.01). The second measurement was made on 30 March 2024, to determine the effect of the treatments on plant width. According to the results of the statistical analysis, the highest plant width among all the treatments was obtained from I1N3, where there was no water stress, and the highest nitrogen fertilizer was applied (Table 8). The lowest values were obtained from the treatments in which severe water stress was applied. When the increase in the plant width development rates at the end of the project was taken into consideration (Figure 4), the N2 and N3 nitrogen levels had closer results in all the irrigation treatments.

3.3.2. Plant Height

According to the plant height measurement made before starting the applications (first measurement), no statistical differences were found among the treatments (Table 9). The irrigation level × nitrogen dose interaction was important statistically in the second measurement (p < 0.01) (Table 10). The lowest plant height results were provided from I3 applications (severe water stress level), even if the nitrogen doses changed. It was determined that the different irrigation levels (I1, I2, and I3) had significant effects on the plant height.
The lowest plant height in each irrigation program was provided in the N0 treatments. This result shows that different nitrogen doses were effective in cyclamen plants, as well as different irrigation programs. The plant height results with the N2 and N3 nitrogen doses were in similar statistical groups in the moderate (I2) and severe water stress (I3) treatments, respectively. The highest plant heights were obtained from the N3 application in the I1 treatment without water stress, followed by the N2 application.
Increasing plant height as a percentage (%) was calculated by using two measurements made at the beginning and end of the study. The results varied between 221.4% and 497.4% (Figure 5). The highest increasing rates were obtained from the N2 and N3 nitrogen doses at each irrigation level.

3.3.3. Leaf Stalk Length

The first leaf stalk length measurements were taken just before starting the applications. There were no statistical differences in the first measurement (Table 11). The irrigation level × nitrogen dose interaction was statistically significant (p < 0.01) (Table 12). The lowest values were obtained from subjects (N0) where no nitrogen was applied at each irrigation level.
The leaf stalk length was also negatively affected by increasing water stress levels, like the other vegetative development parameters measured in the project. The highest values were obtained in the N3 and N2 applications with 10.62 cm and 9.74 cm from the applications where there was no water stress, and the nitrogen dose increased. When the nitrogen doses were considered, the effects of the nitrogen applications with different doses were different even in the I1 subjects without water stress. The highest result in these treatments was given by the N3 application, followed by the N2 application.
When the increased results (%) in leaf stalk growth were evaluated, it was seen that the cyclamen plant continued its vegetative development even at the water stress levels (Table 13). In the water stress treatments, the leaf stalk length increased without nitrogen application. It was determined that there was a growth increase of approximately two times between I3N0 (severe water stress without nitrogen dose) and I1N3 (no water stress with the highest nitrogen dose).

3.4. Generative Parameters

3.4.1. Number of Flowers

According to the results on number of flowers, the highest values were obtained from the treatments where 20 kg da−1 (N2) and 30 kg da−1 (N3) nitrogen doses were applied in the I1 treatments (no water stress). It was determined that water stress conditions had a negative effect on the number of flowers. Even at the same nitrogen dose, the number of flowers decreased under water stress conditions (Table 14).

3.4.2. Flower Stalk Length

The effect of different irrigation and nitrogen dose applications on cyclamen growing was found to be statistically significant (Table 15). Increasing the nitrogen dose amounts had a positive effect on the flower stalk in similar irrigation programs. The lowest values were obtained from N0 subjects where nitrogen was not applied at each irrigation level. The I2N3 treatment, having moderate water stress and the highest nitrogen dose, and the I1N2 treatment, having no water stress and nitrogen applied at the N2 level, were in similar statistical groups. The flower stalk lengths obtained from subjects where no nitrogen was used and those from the treatments, where 10 kg da−1 of nitrogen fertilizer was applied in the same irrigation program, were close to each other.

4. Discussion

The plant water consumption values varied depending on the amount of irrigation water. As the amounts of irrigation water were higher than the other treatments, the highest plant water consumption was provided by the I1 treatments. I1 had higher water consumption than the other treatments, in which similar nitrogen doses were applied. Demirel et al. (2020) stated that cyclamen plants used higher amounts of irrigation water depending on different irrigation levels [31]. The lowest water consumption was obtained from plants to which was applied 25% of the irrigation water of the plants fully irrigated in their study. Plant water consumption increased in the plants of the I1 treatments towards the end of the growing season (Figure 1). This result showed that cyclamen plants continued to grow even if they were at the end of the growing season. Cyclamen plants are perennial, and they continue to grow after flowering. This means that the flowering period continues to the end of the year. Since the plants continue to grow, they can consume more water. The planned water consumption decreased towards the end of the season in the cyclamen plants of the other treatments. The reason may be that this decreases the vegetative growth and stops the growth of plants due to less applied irrigation water. The increase in nitrogen dose provided more vegetative growth [27]. When vegetative growth is strong, plants start to use higher amounts of irrigation water. The different nitrogen doses applied to plants affected the amounts of irrigation water applied; increasing nitrogen doses provided higher plant water consumption [32]. Plant water consumption increased with the nitrogen doses even if the plants had a similar irrigation program applied. This situation can be interpreted as nitrogen, which is one of the important nutrient elements for plants, significantly increasing the vegetative development of the plant. Therefore, the water consumption of the plant increases.
There are very few comparable studies on the Pn and gsw results of cyclamen plants. All the water stress levels applied in this study decreased the Pn and gsw. Stomatal closure is one of the first responses to drought stress, which results in a declining rate of photosynthesis. Athar and Ashraf (2005) reported that water stress lowers the water potential of the growing plants, leading to dehydration and decreased stomatal conductance [33]. Anjum et al. (2011) stated that water stress levels negatively affected the Pn [34]. Many studies have shown decreased photosynthetic activity under drought stress due to stomatal or non-stomatal mechanisms [35,36,37]. Yıldırım et al. (2009) reported that if the amount of irrigation water applied is less than the cyclamen needs, it could negatively affect the morphological and physiological characteristics of the plant [38]. Drought stress inhibits dry matter production largely through its inhibitory effects on leaf expansion, leaf development, and the consequently reduced light interception [39]. Water stress affected the stomatal closure and reduced photosynthesis of New Guinea Impatiens [40]. Plants have responses to water stress by reducing the Pn and gsw. Similar Pn and gsw results were also provided by this study. The photosynthetic capacity of leaves is related to the nitrogen content primarily [41]. Nitrogen deficiency in plants negatively affects photosynthesis [27]. Ay and İbrikçi (2020) stated that nitrogen deficiency leads to decreased photosynthesis [42]. N increases vegetative growth and plant branching. In turn, more leaves are produced in the plant, increasing the photosynthetic level [43]. Higher N content in leaves is associated with higher chlorophyll content and increased chloroplast activity and thus increased photosynthetic productivity [44]. Application of optimum N improves various physiological and metabolic processes, such as photosynthesis, carbon, and nitrogen metabolism, and increases photosynthesis activity [45]. Appropriate amounts of nitrogen fertilizer applications provide higher photosynthetic activity in the plant [46]. The relationship between nitrogen and photosynthesis depends on plant species and varieties. Akman (2001) stated that N increased photosynthetic activity in barley, but the N application of more than 16 kg da−1 did not affect photosynthetic activity [47]. Tóth et al. (2002) performed a study to determine the effect of the different N doses (30, 60, 90, 120, and 150 N kg ha−1) on the photosynthesis of maize plants and found no significant differences [48]. Cechin and De Fátima Fumis (2004) obtained the finding that photosynthesis was remarkably increased by high nitrogen supply for sunflowers [49]. They determined that N did not statistically affect stomatal conductance. Reddy et al. (1996) determined that net photosynthetic rate and stomatal conductance of cotton were positively correlated with leaf N concentration [50]. The plants had different responses to increasing N doses. Increasing nitrogen doses positively affected both the Pn and gsw of cyclamen in this study. Each increase in nitrogen doses provided higher Pn and gsw results. Strong vegetative growth means healthy plants. The reason may be the better vegetative growth, since nitrogen supported vegetative growth. That is why nitrogen applications with 30 kg da−1 should be increased in the following studies. Although nitrogen applications increased plant vegetative development, it can be said that the amount of irrigation water in the effective root zone had a more effective effect on plant height in cyclamen. Nitrogen supports an increase in the growth of plants. When there is enough water around in the effective root zone area, nitrogen has a more positive effect due to water having a transporting effect on plant nutrient elements from root to stem, leaves, etc. If there is a lack of water in the root zone area, this situation has a negative effect on the transport of plant nutrients from root to stem, leaves, etc. Even if a sufficient amount of nitrogen is applied, plants cannot uptake nitrogen or other elements. The reason for less vegetative development in I3 treatments can be explained in this way. Some researchers stated that increasing nitrogen doses provided higher plant height [51,52]. Salman et al. (2016) reported that the plant height of C. persicum Mill. was between 5 and 20 cm [8]. The plant height results obtained from the study were between these values. The plant width in conditions without water stress increased as the nitrogen level increased. In the treatments with no water stress, the cyclamen plant responded positively to the increasing nitrogen dose by increasing the plant width value. The effects of nitrogen doses applied to cyclamen under severe stress applications (I3 treatment) on plant width were similar. In other words, in cultivation carried out with irrigation at this level, the application of nitrogen fertilizer at the lowest (N1) level will be sufficient to obtain the highest plant width. In this case, savings in nitrogen fertilizers will also be possible. A common adverse effect of water stress on crop plants is the reduction in vegetative growth [42,53]. One of the important effects of water deficiency in the effective root zone is the decrease in vegetative growth due to the decrease in photosynthesis rate [54]. Yıldırım et al. (2009) reported that water deficit treatments in C. hederifolium had positive effects on some vegetative growth parameters like fresh root weight, stalk length, and the number of stalks [38]. The results did not match with those of this study. The reason for the different results may be the use of different species (C. persicum Mill. and C. hederifolium Aiton.) and different irrigation treatments in these studies. The increasing rates of plant width obtained from the I3 treatments varied from 401.6 to 431.4, and they were close. This means that even less irrigation water and lower nitrogen applications provide vegetative growth. Similar results can also be said for plant height and leaf stalk length. C. persicum Mill. can be grown in water stress conditions with a lower amount of nitrogen fertilizer.
The lower nitrogen amounts led to decreased vegetative growth [27]. Since the plant height increases were similar in the I2 and I3 irrigation programs, the 20 kg da−1 instead of 30 kg da−1 nitrogen dose has sufficient potential for plant height. This situation also provides savings for nitrogen fertilizer. Altay and Müftüoğlu (2004) reported that the vegetative growth of plants was negatively affected by excess nitrogen [55]. The highest nitrogen dose used was 30 kg da−1 in this study. So, it can be recommended that higher nitrogen doses should be studied in the next studies. The increasing rate in treatment without water stress and no nitrogen dose was higher than the I3N3 application, which was exposed to severe water stress and the application of the highest nitrogen dose. When some vegetative development parameters measured in the project were evaluated together, cyclamen kept on growing in conditions with no applied nitrogen.
In this study, it was found that increasing nitrogen doses increased the number of flowers. It can be said that increasing nitrogen doses increases vegetative development and that increasing vegetative development positively affects flower formation. The highest number of flowers was obtained from N2 and N3 nitrogen doses. If a high number of flowers are targeted in cyclamen growing, irrigation should be conducted without creating water stress conditions (I1), and N2 and N3 nitrogen doses should be applied. N2 application can be recommended to growers to save on nitrogenous fertilizers for providing the highest number of flowers. The I2N3 treatment with moderate water stress and the highest nitrogen dose, and the I1N2 treatment with no water stress and nitrogen applied at the N2 level were in similar statistical groups. This result showed that if the amount of the irrigation water source is sufficient, the same number of flowers will be obtained by using less nitrogen fertilizer (I1N2). Water stress negatively affected New Guinea Impatiens and limited total flowering [33]. Flower stalks of chrysanthemum, another ornamental plant, were affected by different irrigation water amounts [56]. The longest flower stalk lengths were obtained from the treatment that applied the highest amount of irrigation water. Yazıcı et al. (2020) reported that nitrogen applications increased the flower stalk of Dahlia spp. [57].

5. Conclusions

Each irrigation program and nitrogen dose had significant effects on plant water consumption and the vegetative (plant width, plant height, leaf stalk length) and generative (numbers of flowers, flower stalk length) growth of C. persicum Mill. Moderate and severe water stress negatively affected all parameters.
Frequency irrigation should be recommended for C. persicum Mill. growing. With nitrogen applications, the I1 irrigation program can be used for C. persicum Mill. growing. Irrigation should start when 20% of the available water holding capacity (AWHC) in the effective root zone area is used.
N2 nitrogen application increased the number of flowers. For other parameters, 30 kg da−1 provided the highest results. As a result, the I1 (frequency irrigation) irrigation program and N3 nitrogen dose can be applied together to obtain the best vegetative growth. As another option to obtain the most generative growth, the I1 (frequency irrigation) irrigation program and N2 nitrogen dose can be applied together.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, C.K. and Z.K.; methodology, C.K. and Z.K.; software, C.K.; validation, Z.K.; formal analysis, C.K.; investigation, C.K.; resources, Z.K.; data curation, C.K. and Z.K.; writing—original draft preparation, C.K. and Z.K.; writing—review and editing, C.K. and Z.K.; visualization, Z.K.; supervision, C.K. and Z.K.; project administration, C.K.; funding acquisition, C.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by İzmir Democracy University Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit (Project number: HIZDEP-MYO/2301).

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article; further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the help of the research field of Agean Agricultural Research Institute, TAGEM (Agricultural Policies and Research General Directorate).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

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Horticulturae 11 00429 g001
Figure 1. Plant water consumption results of I1 (a), I2 (b), and I3 (c) treatments.
Figure 1. Plant water consumption results of I1 (a), I2 (b), and I3 (c) treatments.
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Figure 2. Trends of net photosynthesis rate during the growing period.
Figure 2. Trends of net photosynthesis rate during the growing period.
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Figure 3. Trends of stomatal conductance during the growing period.
Figure 3. Trends of stomatal conductance during the growing period.
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Figure 4. Increasing rates of plant width were obtained from all treatments.
Figure 4. Increasing rates of plant width were obtained from all treatments.
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Figure 5. Increasing rates of plant height were obtained from all treatments.
Figure 5. Increasing rates of plant height were obtained from all treatments.
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Table 1. Some properties of the pot soil mixture.
Table 1. Some properties of the pot soil mixture.
Soil TextureLoam
Field capacity (%)26.8
Wilting point (%)14.9
Unit weight (g cm−3)1.18
pH7.40
Organic matter (%)3.55
Phosphorus (mg kg−1)115
Potassium (mg kg−1)320
Calcium (mg kg−1)790
Table 2. Plant water consumption of the (l plant−1).
Table 2. Plant water consumption of the (l plant−1).
Irrigation ProgramsNitrogen Doses
N0N1N2N3
I111.1112.4014.9916.40
I29.8611.2812.9814.60
I39.2910.5911.8813.73
Table 3. The results of the net photosynthesis rate (Pn) measured on 1 December 2023.
Table 3. The results of the net photosynthesis rate (Pn) measured on 1 December 2023.
Irrigation ProgramsPn (μmol m−2 s−1)Nitrogen DosesPn (μmol m−2 s−1)
I19.93 a **N07.53 d **
I29.06 bN18.41 c
I38.24 cN29.84 b
N310.52 a
** p < 0.01. Values with common letters do not differ significantly in each separate column.
Table 4. The results of the net photosynthesis rate (Pn) measured on 30 March 2024.
Table 4. The results of the net photosynthesis rate (Pn) measured on 30 March 2024.
Irrigation ProgramsNitrogen Doses
N0N1N2N3
I18.88 e *9.60 cd10.88 b12.47 a
I27.75 f8.00 f9.45 cde10.00 c
I36.45 g7.46 f9.03 de9.22 de
* p < 0.05. Values with common letters do not differ significantly in each separate column.
Table 5. The results of stomatal conductance (gsw) measured on 1 December 2023.
Table 5. The results of stomatal conductance (gsw) measured on 1 December 2023.
Irrigation Programsgsw (mol m−2 s−1)Nitrogen Dosesgsw (mol m−2 s−1)
I10.305 a **N00.241 d **
I20.267 bN10.259 c
I30.253 cN20.282 b
N30.316 a
** p < 0.01. Values with common letters do not differ significantly in each separate column.
Table 6. The results of stomatal conductance (gsw) measured on 30 March 2024.
Table 6. The results of stomatal conductance (gsw) measured on 30 March 2024.
Irrigation Programsgsw (mol m−2 s−1)Nitrogen Dosesgsw (mol m−2 s−1)
I10.265 a **N00.191 d **
I20.223 bN10.221 c
I30.195 cN20.244 b
N30.254 a
** p < 0.01. Values with common letters do not differ significantly in each separate column.
Table 7. The first measurement of plant width on 2 October 2023 (cm).
Table 7. The first measurement of plant width on 2 October 2023 (cm).
Irrigation ProgramsNitrogen Doses
N0N1N2N3
I13.69 ns3.703.723.81
I23.643.853.783.83
I33.803.783.833.82
ns: not significant.
Table 8. The second measurement of plant width on 30 March 2024 (cm).
Table 8. The second measurement of plant width on 30 March 2024 (cm).
Irrigation ProgramsNitrogen Doses
N0N1N2N3
I117.80 fg **19.93 de23.93 ab24.53 a
I216.48 gh19.03 ef21.44 cd22.32 bc
I315.26 h16.06 gh16.09 gh16.48 gh
** p < 0.01. Values with common letters do not differ significantly in each separate column.
Table 9. The first measurement of plant height on 2 October 2023 (cm).
Table 9. The first measurement of plant height on 2 October 2023 (cm).
Irrigation ProgramsNitrogen Doses
N0N1N2N3
I13.99 ns4.023.843.88
I23.813.923.743.67
I33.843.563.823.88
ns: not significant.
Table 10. The second measurement of plant height on 30 March 2024 (cm).
Table 10. The second measurement of plant height on 30 March 2024 (cm).
Irrigation ProgramsNitrogen Doses
N0N1N2N3
I113.4 d **15.6 c18.4 b19.3 a
I211.1 e12.9 d14.8 c15.7 c
I38.5 g9.4 f11.1 e11.7 e
** p < 0.01. Values with common letters do not differ significantly in each separate column.
Table 11. The first measurement of leaf stalk length on 2 October 2023 (cm).
Table 11. The first measurement of leaf stalk length on 2 October 2023 (cm).
Irrigation ProgramsNitrogen Doses
N0N1N2N3
I13.09 ns3.173.173.15
I23.343.293.213.26
I33.233.153.333.23
ns: not significant.
Table 12. The second measurement of leaf stalk length on 30 March 2024 (cm).
Table 12. The second measurement of leaf stalk length on 30 March 2024 (cm).
Irrigation ProgramsNitrogen Doses
N0N1N2N3
I16.84 e **8.13 cd9.74 b10.62 a
I26.67 ef6.98 e7.77 d8.59 c
I36.22 f7.81 d8.21 cd8.43 c
** p < 0.01. Values with common letters do not differ significantly in each separate column.
Table 13. Increasing rates of leaf stalk length (%).
Table 13. Increasing rates of leaf stalk length (%).
Irrigation ProgramsNitrogen Doses
N0N1N2N3
I1221.4256.5307.3337.1
I2209.9202.7242.1263.5
I3192.6247.9246.5260.1
Table 14. Number of flowers of treatments (numbers).
Table 14. Number of flowers of treatments (numbers).
Irrigation ProgramsNitrogen Doses
N0N1N2N3
I14.1 de **4.7 cd7.0 a7.0 a
I23.8 e4.6 de5.2 bc5.6 b
I33.9 e4.2 de5.3 b5.3 b
** p < 0.01. Values with common letters do not differ significantly in each separate column.
Table 15. Flower stalk lengths of treatments (numbers).
Table 15. Flower stalk lengths of treatments (numbers).
Irrigation ProgramsNitrogen Doses
N0N1N2N3
I17.87 ef **8.93 d11.65 b12.73 a
I27.22 gh7.67 fg10.77 c11.70 b
I35.68 ı6.71 h8.21 ef8.43 de
** p < 0.01. Values with common letters do not differ significantly in each separate column.
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Küçükyumuk, C.; Küçükyumuk, Z. The Effects of Different Irrigation Programs and Nitrogen Doses on Vegetative and Generative Development Characteristics of Cyclamen persicum Mill. Horticulturae 2025, 11, 429. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11040429

AMA Style

Küçükyumuk C, Küçükyumuk Z. The Effects of Different Irrigation Programs and Nitrogen Doses on Vegetative and Generative Development Characteristics of Cyclamen persicum Mill. Horticulturae. 2025; 11(4):429. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11040429

Chicago/Turabian Style

Küçükyumuk, Cenk, and Zeliha Küçükyumuk. 2025. "The Effects of Different Irrigation Programs and Nitrogen Doses on Vegetative and Generative Development Characteristics of Cyclamen persicum Mill." Horticulturae 11, no. 4: 429. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11040429

APA Style

Küçükyumuk, C., & Küçükyumuk, Z. (2025). The Effects of Different Irrigation Programs and Nitrogen Doses on Vegetative and Generative Development Characteristics of Cyclamen persicum Mill. Horticulturae, 11(4), 429. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11040429

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