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Article

Plant–Vitamin–Microorganism Interaction in Hydroponic Melon Cultivation

by
Vanessa Ribeiro
1,
Eduardo Pradi Vendruscolo
1,*,
Jessé Santarém Conceição
1,
Sebastião Ferreira de Lima
2,*,
Flávio Ferreira da Silva Binotti
1,
Fernanda Pacheco de Almeida Prado Bortolheiro
1,
Carlos Eduardo da Silva Oliveira
1,
Edilson Costa
1 and
Luc Lafleur
1
1
Agronomy Department, State University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Cassilândia 79540-000, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil
2
Agronomy Department, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Chapadão do Sul 79560-000, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Horticulturae 2024, 10(12), 1329; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10121329 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 29 October 2024 / Revised: 19 November 2024 / Accepted: 11 December 2024 / Published: 12 December 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Greenhouse: Comfort and Ambience for Horticulture Plants)
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Abstract

:
The study of the application of biostimulants in agriculture aims to increase production and improve the efficient use of physical space and agricultural inputs, thus contributing to the sustainability of production systems. One of the new challenges is to verify the effects of joint application of these products to identify possible interactions during crop development. In this context, the present study aimed to evaluate the biostimulant potential of the isolated and combined use of nicotinamide and Azospirillum brasilense in developing cantaloupe melon plants and fruits. The treatments consisted of foliar application (combined and isolated) of nicotinamide (300 mg L−1) and A. brasilense (2 mL L−1). The results revealed that applying biostimulants positively influences gas exchange and vegetative growth of plants, especially in the root system. However, although the isolated application of each biostimulant resulted in greater effectiveness in terms of transpiration, stomatal conductance, and net CO2 assimilation, which provided an increase in the soluble solids content, the combined application of the two biostimulants resulted in significant gains in the growth of vegetative organs and fruits. Furthermore, combined applications of nicotinamide plus A. brasilense favored the development of biometric characteristics and fruit fresh weight, while isolated applications increased soluble solids content.

1. Introduction

The melon (Cucumis melo L.) is an herbaceous plant belonging to the cucurbitaceae family and is a highly prized and popular vegetable worldwide [1]. Among the cultivated species, there is growing interest in producing “noble” fruit, popularly known as Japanese or cantaloupe melons, which belong to the cantaloupe group (Cucumis melo var. reticulatus Naud.). These melons have aroused great interest because they are superior in quality to other traditional melons, with a more pleasant aroma, more attractively colored flesh, and a higher soluble solids content [2].
The melon has a high economic importance in the Brazilian market, with a national production of approximately 700,000 tons on 28,000 hectares and an average fruit yield of 25 tons per hectare. Although the crop is well suited to being produced all over the country, the northeast is the main producing region, responsible for around 95% of Brazilian production. The state of Rio Grande do Norte produces around 60% of this total [3]. Cultivation in the region is expanding due to the use of technology and the work of large companies, which direct a significant part of their production to foreign markets. The northeast’s favorable climatic conditions contribute to fruit with a better taste and higher sugar content.
Brazil excels in trading certain fruits on the global stage, playing a leading role in the international melon market. Currently, the states of the northeast region stand out as the largest exporters, placing Brazil as the world’s second largest melon exporter [4]. According to the Agência Sebrae de Notícias, in the first quarter of 2024, Rio Grande do Norte had a 19.8% increase in exports of yellow melons, totaling almost 60,000 tons. This amount represents approximately US$ 45 million, corresponding to 26.3% of the total exported during this period. According to Sebrae, the total volume of exports increased by around 20% in 2024 compared to the same period in 2023, reaching a total of US$ 171.5 million, while in the previous year, the accumulated amount was US$ 143.1 million [5]. According to data from the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Food Supply [6], melon production in 2024 is estimated at approximately 662,000 tons, with an average annual growth projection of 28.7% until the year 2032, as indicated in the Brazil Agribusiness Projections 2022/2023 to 2032/2033.
Linked to this increase in production and exports is the growing use of technology and the introduction of new crop management methods, as well as the use of biostimulants. The use of these products has gained prominence in grain production, such as corn [7] and sorghum [8]; however, it has been increasingly recognized as beneficial when applied to some varieties of vegetables, such as lettuce [9,10], beet [11], maxixe [12], and cucumber [13].
Some compounds, such as vitamin B complex, have plant growth-promoting functions, but they are still new and have been little exploited commercially [14]. Nicotinamide, one of the vitamins in this complex known as niacin or vitamin B3, plays an important role in various reactions, such as in bioactive molecules, acting as a cofactor in redox reactions, mitochondrial metabolism, and in the photosynthetic process, making it essential for plant progress, as well as indirectly contributing to development by carrying out energy transport in the plant cell [15]. Furthermore, when applied exogenously, it can bring significant benefits related to gas exchange and vegetative growth improvement of hydroponic lettuce, for example [16].
Bacteria of the genus Azospirillum are diazotrophic bacteria that act directly in the biological fixation of nitrogen and, when associated with the plant rhizosphere, can contribute to nitrogen nutrition [17]. Azospirillum brasilense, the species with the greatest potential among the Azospirillum genus, favors plant growth, improves photosynthetic efficiency, and increases levels of hormones, nutrients, and pigments, as well as regulating gene expression related to growth, production, and fruit quality [18]. When applied to melon crops, A. brasilense can contribute to root development, increase plant nitrogen availability, and reduce the need for nitrogen fertilizers. This can result in better plant growth, increased production, and improved fruit quality [19].
Combined effects can also benefit plant development through the interaction of two or more products [14]. When the products are used together, the positive effects of the bacteria’s application are combined with the stimulate action of the vitamin, which includes an increase in photosynthesis [19], stomatal functionality [20], and leaf pigment content [21], resulting in increased growth and gas exchange in pumpkin [22] and higher yield in species such as corn [23], and lettuce [16].
However, it is essential to investigate these effects in different growing conditions and species to avoid incompatibilities and yield and financial losses. For example, for hydroponic squash, which is a determining factor for crop yield, it has been found that the combined application of these two biostimulants has a positive effect on the production of female flowers [22]. In this scenario, considering the possibility of a synergistic interaction when applying products with biostimulant properties, this study sought to evaluate the biostimulant potential of nicotinamide and Azospirillum brasilense, both alone and in combination, in the development and yield of melons in hydroponic cultivation.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Site and Study Design

The experiment was conducted at the Experimental Farm of the Mato Grosso do Sul State University (UEMS), in Cassilândia, MS, Brazil (19°05′46″ S, 51°48′50″ W, at an altitude of 521 m). The experiment was set in a greenhouse measuring 14.64 m long × 6.40 m wide × 3.5 m high, closed on the roof and sides by 150-micron lightweight, double-layer low-density polyethylene (LDPE) film, with an aluminized thermal reflective screen with 35% shading (Aluminet, Ginegar Brasil, Leme, Brazil) under the roof film and a Humil Cool (CELDEX, São Caetano do Sul, Brazil) pad/fan climate control system. The room has six internal metal benches measuring 1.10 m × 5.0 m and 0.80 m high, with a concrete floor.
The melon plants were obtained by sowing them in 125 mL tubes filled with commercial substrate (Carolina Soil, Santa Cruz do Sul, Brazil). After sixteen days, the containers with two-leaf seedlings were transferred to a hydroponic system, where the tubes were fitted into a Styrofoam structure and placed in the pot containing a static solution aerated by a set of air compressors and hoses [22], with a spacing of 30 cm between the planes. Each pot was filled with 4.0 L of complete nutrient solution for hydroponics (18% N, 8% P, 30% K, 15% Ca, 3% S, 3% Mg, 0.14% Fe, 0.04% B, 0.04% Mn, 0.03% Cu, 0.019% Mo, 0.006% Ni, and 0.002% Co), which was replaced every seven days. The temperature and relative humidity conditions were recorded using a meteorological station installed in the center of the greenhouse (Figure 1).

2.2. Study Design and Plant Management

A completely randomized design was adopted with four treatments and three replications, where each experimental plot consisted of a pot containing a melon seedling of the “Bazuca” cultivar. The treatments were: T1: control; T2: 300 mg L−1 of nicotinamide applied via foliar spraying; T3: 2 mL L−1 of A. brasilense (Azototal, Total Bio, Vinhedo Brazil) applied via foliar spraying; T4: 300 mg L−1 of nicotinamide combined with 2 mL L−1 of A. brasilense applied via foliar spraying. Foliar spray applications were conducted using a hand sprayer (2 mL plant−1) three days after the seedlings were transferred to the hydroponic system. The concentrations used were based on the literature on applying nicotinamide [24] and A. brasilense [18] to horticultural species.
The system was set up in an espalier system using eucalyptus rafters, which served as a fixing point for the wires tensioned over the pots. The plants and fruits were tied to the wires using zip ties. Twenty-seven days after being transferred to the hydroponic system, the lateral branches were pruned, and the basal leaves were removed from the plants. The flowers were pollinated naturally.

2.3. Gas Exchange Analysis

Evaluations of gas exchange characteristics were carried out five days after the treatments were applied, determining net photosynthesis (A), stomatal conductance (gs), intracellular CO2 concentration (Ci), and transpiration (E) in the morning, when the plants were in full gas exchange activity, between 8 am and 10 am, using a portable infrared gas exchange analyzer (LCi, ADC Bioscientific, Hertfordshire, UK). Water use efficiency (A/E) and instantaneous carboxylation efficiency (A/Ci) were also estimated.

2.4. Plant and Fruit Analysis

Harvesting began seventy-eight days after sowing when the point of physiological maturity was observed, characterized by the development of the abscission layer at the insertion of the fruit peduncle; the harvest lasted nineteen days. At this stage, the fruit’s fresh weight (g) was assessed in the laboratory by weighing it on a digital scale, the diameter of the fruit (mm) was measured using a digital caliper, and the soluble solids content (expressed in °Brix) was measured using a digital refractometer.
After collecting the fruit, the following variables were assessed: stem diameter (mm), obtained with a digital caliper in the middle of the first internode; stem length (cm), measured with a graduated ruler; number of nodes; root volume (cm3), obtained by submerging the roots in a beaker containing a known volume of water and taking the volume displaced after total submergence; and root dry weight (g), stem dry weight (g), and leaf dry weight (g), which were obtained by drying the plants in a forced circulation oven at 65 °C for 48 h and then weighing them on a digital scale.

2.5. Statistical Analysis

The data were subjected to preliminary tests of normality and homoscedasticity and then submitted for analysis of variance. The means were compared using the Tukey test at 5% probability. Sisvar version 5.6 software [25] was used to analyze the data. Canonical variable analysis was performed with R software version 4.1.0, using Corrplot package (version 0.84) for correlation and using the Candisc package (version 0.9.0).

3. Results

A higher CO2 content in the leaf mesophyll (Ci) was observed under the combination of A. brasilense + nicotinamide compared to the control (without the use of biostimulants) (Figure 2A), with an increase of 12%. The highest values of leaf transpiration (E) were found for the treatments under the isolated application of A. brasilense or nicotinamide and the combined application, compared to the control (without the use of biostimulants) (Figure 2B), for which an increase of 21.6%, 26.1%, and 21.4% were found, respectively. There was also greater leaf stomatal conductance (gs) under the isolated application of A. brasilense and nicotinamide compared to the control (without the use of biostimulants) (Figure 2C), with increases of 14.5% and 21.7%, respectively. There was no significant effect (p > 0.05) of the biostimulants on the net assimilation rate of photosynthesis (A) (Figure 2D).
Higher water use efficiency (WUE) was observed under the control treatment compared to the biostimulant treatment (Figure 3A), with an average superiority of 22.4%. A higher carboxylation efficiency (EICi) was observed under the control treatment compared to the combined effect of A. brasilense + nicotinamide (Figure 3B), with a superiority of 20.7%.
There was no significant effect (p > 0.05) of applying the biostimulants on stem length and number of nodes (Figure 4A,B). However, greater stem diameter was obtained with the combined application of A. brasilense + nicotinamide, increasing the characteristic by 18.6% when compared to the control (Figure 4C), and greater root volume in the treatments with the application of A. brasilense and nicotinamide isolated and the combination of A. brasilense + nicotinamide compared to the control (Figure 4D), for which there was an increase of 68.4%, 152.6%, and 184.2%, respectively.
The combined application of A. brasilense + nicotinamide increased the fruit fresh weight compared to the other treatments (Figure 5A), increasing the fresh weight by 19.2% compared to the control. In addition, isolated applications of A. brasilense and nicotinamide led to an increase in the total soluble solids of the fruit, 10.5% and 10% compared to the control and 28.2% and 27.6% compared to the combined application of A. brasilense + nicotinamide (Figure 5B). However, there was no significant effect (p > 0.05) of the application of biostimulants on fruit diameter (Figure 5C).
The combined application of A. brasilense + nicotinamide favored an increase in stem dry weight, followed by nicotinamide alone (Figure 6A), which resulted in an increase of 56% and 27.2% over the control treatment. The highest leaf dry weight averages were obtained when the combination of A. brasilense + nicotinamide was used compared to the control treatment (Figure 6B), increasing the leaf dry weight by 38.9%. In addition, there was no significant effect (p > 0.05) of the application of biostimulants on root dry weight (Figure 6C).
According to the components of the canonical analysis, it was possible to highlight the influence of the isolated application of A. brasilense on the variables A and TSS, which was strong and in the same quadrant of similarity. Likewise, the nicotinamide treatment significantly influenced gS, E, SD, RV, and TDW variables. However, under the combined application of A. brasilense + nicotinamide, there was an influence on FFW, consistent with the higher FFW found in the results graphs. On the other hand, without applying biostimulants, there was only an influence on the WUE variable (Figure 7).

4. Discussion

Foliar applications of Azospirillum brasilense and nicotinamide resulted in several positive changes in biometric characteristics (Figure 4) and, consequently, in fruit growth and an increase in the dry weight of the melon plants (Figure 5 and Figure 6). These results are driven by the joint action of the bacteria and the vitamin in association with the vegetable (Figure 7).
Nicotinamide is crucial in energy transport activities in the photosystem, composing the formation of NADP+/NADPH and acting as an electron donor in anabolic reactions and an electron receptor in catabolic reactions [26]. Its contribution to NADPH formation also affects nitrogen assimilation by plants since this coenzyme actively converts nitrate into ammonia [27].
In addition, root growth was stimulated by nicotinamide (Figure 4D) once its application improved auxin production by increasing gene expression and, consequently, root development [28,29]. The use of nicotinamide in the cultivation of plants of economic interest has also positively influenced soybeans [30], lettuce [16], and basil [31].
Bacteria of the genus Azospirillum are known to promote plant growth (Figure 6A,B). Their action includes increasing the natural levels of indoleacetic acid (IAA) and improving the absorption of nutrients by plants. These changes positively impact vegetative growth and the production of female reproductive organs in pumpkin plants [22]. This can increase production, as observed in melon cultivation [19].
It was observed that exposure of tomato plants to the bacteria improved photosynthetic performance and growth of both the shoot and the roots of the plants compared to the treatment without biostimulant treatment [32]. This is directly related to the increase in the production of compounds mainly active in gas exchange, and chloroplast organization [32]. In addition, in hydroponic crops of basil and rocket, this bacterium promoted a significant increase in the leaf nutrient content, boosting plant growth and root development [10,33].
The effects become even more evident when the vitamin is combined with bacteria through foliar spraying, revealing a synergistic effect between the two products when used with this purpose. This effect of the combined application of A. brasilense and nicotinamide was also observed in coffee plants, resulting in a significant increase in growth and dry matter accumulation [14].
The synergistic effect of the use of A. brasilense and nicotinamide can be seen in the improvement obtained in the characteristics of stem diameter (Figure 4C), root volume (Figure 4D), fruit fresh weight (Figure 5A), stem dry weight (Figure 6A), and leaf dry weight (Figure 6B).
Therefore, it is clear that the combined use of the A. brasilense bacteria with nicotinamide has a synergistic effect and shows positive results in terms of plant development, fruit growth, and the accumulation of plant dry weight (Figure 7). However, it was observed that this combination did not increase total soluble solids in the fruit (Figure 5B). This can be attributed to the fact that the association between the biostimulant and the bacteria promotes the development of the plant growth organs but does not favor the concentration of sugars in the fruit (Figure 7). On the other hand, there was a positive correlation between the net CO2 assimilation rate and the total soluble solids content (Figure 7), which is associated with the plant’s ability to produce a greater amount of photoassimilates for accumulation in the fruit.
The increase in root volume and stem diameter (Figure 4C,D) suggests greater absorption of the solution by the plant, which may have increased the fruit fresh weight (Figure 5A) and, consequently, resulted in the dilution of the sugars present. The negative correlation between stem diameter and root volume concerning the water use efficiency characteristic (Figure 7) also implies that these characteristics improve the plant water conditions and, consequently, allow it to use the nutrients in the nutrient solution more effectively.
As such, the combined application of A. brasilense and nicotinamide via foliar spraying is a technique to be explored in melon production and could be the subject of further research involving different doses and combinations with nutrients that promote the accumulation of soluble solids in the fruit. As the results of this study show, although the combination of A. brasilense and nicotinamide did not produce satisfactory results, individual applications of these substances resulted in positive performance (Figure 5B).
Increasing the sustainability of agricultural production systems has been the focus of many discussions around the world, and obtaining techniques that allow the development of foods with lower environmental costs and a lower chemical load has been a frequent demand by consumers. In this sense, this study adds valuable information aimed at achieving higher productivity, specifically with the use of environmentally friendly products that do not cause disruptions to the marketing of food, and highlights the possibility of including these products in regenerative agriculture systems.

5. Conclusions

The combined use of nicotinamide and A. brasilense promotes gains in the biometric characteristics of the plant and the development of cantaloupe melon fruit, characterizing a synergistic effect between the vitamin and the bacterium, but with a deleterious effect on the soluble solids content.
Isolated applications of nicotinamide and A. brasilense resulted in higher total soluble solids contents in the fruit, which makes it possible to characterize these inputs as biostimulants for this species.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, V.R. and E.P.V.; methodology, V.R., E.P.V. and S.F.d.L.; validation, V.R., E.P.V., J.S.C. and L.L.; formal analysis, F.F.d.S.B.; investigation, V.R., E.P.V. and F.P.d.A.P.B.; resources, E.P.V. and E.C.; data curation, V.R., E.P.V. and J.S.C.; writing—original draft preparation, V.R.; writing—review and editing, E.P.V., E.C. and C.E.d.S.O.; supervision, E.P.V.; funding acquisition, S.F.d.L. and E.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The APC was funded by CAPES: PDPG program, process number 88887.691216/2022-00.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding authors.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul for technical support.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions, and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions, or products referred to in the content.
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Figure 1. Maximum, average, and minimum temperature and relative air humidity conditions during the experiment. The arrow indicates the moment when heat stress was induced.
Figure 1. Maximum, average, and minimum temperature and relative air humidity conditions during the experiment. The arrow indicates the moment when heat stress was induced.
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Figure 2. Leaf mesophyll CO2 content (A), transpiration (B), stomatal conductance (C), and net assimilation rate (D) of hydroponic melon submitted to the application of nicotinamide and A. brasilense. Bars with the same lowercase letter do not differ by Tukey test (p ≤ 0.05). Azos—2 mL L−1 of A. brasilense applied via foliar spraying; Nico—300 mg L−1 of nicotinamide; Azos + Nico—the combination of 2 mL L−1 of A. brasilense and 300 mg L−1 of nicotinamide applied via foliar spraying.
Figure 2. Leaf mesophyll CO2 content (A), transpiration (B), stomatal conductance (C), and net assimilation rate (D) of hydroponic melon submitted to the application of nicotinamide and A. brasilense. Bars with the same lowercase letter do not differ by Tukey test (p ≤ 0.05). Azos—2 mL L−1 of A. brasilense applied via foliar spraying; Nico—300 mg L−1 of nicotinamide; Azos + Nico—the combination of 2 mL L−1 of A. brasilense and 300 mg L−1 of nicotinamide applied via foliar spraying.
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Figure 3. Water use efficiency (A) and carboxylation efficiency (B) of hydroponic melon submitted to the application of nicotinamide and A. brasilense. Bars with the same lowercase letter do not differ by Tukey test (p ≤ 0.05). Azos—2 mL L−1 of A. brasilense applied via foliar spraying; Nico—300 mg L−1 of nicotinamide; Azos + Nico—the combination of 2 mL L−1 of A. brasilense and 300 mg L−1 of nicotinamide applied via foliar spraying.
Figure 3. Water use efficiency (A) and carboxylation efficiency (B) of hydroponic melon submitted to the application of nicotinamide and A. brasilense. Bars with the same lowercase letter do not differ by Tukey test (p ≤ 0.05). Azos—2 mL L−1 of A. brasilense applied via foliar spraying; Nico—300 mg L−1 of nicotinamide; Azos + Nico—the combination of 2 mL L−1 of A. brasilense and 300 mg L−1 of nicotinamide applied via foliar spraying.
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Figure 4. Stem length (A), number of nodes (B), stem diameter (C), and root volume (D) of hydroponic melon submitted to the application of nicotinamide and A. brasilense. Bars with the same lowercase letter do not differ by Tukey test (p ≤ 0.05). Azos—2 mL L−1 of A. brasilense applied via foliar spraying; Nico—300 mg L−1 of nicotinamide; Azos + Nico—the combination of 2 mL L−1 of A. brasilense and 300 mg L−1 of nicotinamide applied via foliar spraying.
Figure 4. Stem length (A), number of nodes (B), stem diameter (C), and root volume (D) of hydroponic melon submitted to the application of nicotinamide and A. brasilense. Bars with the same lowercase letter do not differ by Tukey test (p ≤ 0.05). Azos—2 mL L−1 of A. brasilense applied via foliar spraying; Nico—300 mg L−1 of nicotinamide; Azos + Nico—the combination of 2 mL L−1 of A. brasilense and 300 mg L−1 of nicotinamide applied via foliar spraying.
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Figure 5. Fruit fresh weight (A), total soluble solids (B), and fruit diameter (C) of hydroponic melon submitted to the application of nicotinamide and A. brasilense. Bars with the same lowercase letter do not differ by Tukey test (p ≤ 0.05). Azos—2 mL L−1 of A. brasilense applied via foliar spraying; Nico—300 mg L−1 of nicotinamide; Azos + Nico—the combination of 2 mL L−1 of A. brasilense and 300 mg L−1 of nicotinamide applied via foliar spraying.
Figure 5. Fruit fresh weight (A), total soluble solids (B), and fruit diameter (C) of hydroponic melon submitted to the application of nicotinamide and A. brasilense. Bars with the same lowercase letter do not differ by Tukey test (p ≤ 0.05). Azos—2 mL L−1 of A. brasilense applied via foliar spraying; Nico—300 mg L−1 of nicotinamide; Azos + Nico—the combination of 2 mL L−1 of A. brasilense and 300 mg L−1 of nicotinamide applied via foliar spraying.
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Figure 6. Stem dry weight (A), leaf dry weight (B), and root dry weight (C) of hydroponic melon submitted to the application of nicotinamide and A. brasilense. Bars with the same lowercase letter do not differ by Tukey test (p ≤ 0.05). Azos—2 mL L−1 of A. brasilense applied via foliar spraying; Nico—300 mg L−1 of nicotinamide; Azos + Nico—the combination of 2 mL L−1 of A. brasilense and 300 mg L−1 of nicotinamide applied via foliar spraying.
Figure 6. Stem dry weight (A), leaf dry weight (B), and root dry weight (C) of hydroponic melon submitted to the application of nicotinamide and A. brasilense. Bars with the same lowercase letter do not differ by Tukey test (p ≤ 0.05). Azos—2 mL L−1 of A. brasilense applied via foliar spraying; Nico—300 mg L−1 of nicotinamide; Azos + Nico—the combination of 2 mL L−1 of A. brasilense and 300 mg L−1 of nicotinamide applied via foliar spraying.
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Figure 7. Canonical correlation analysis among transpiration (E), stomatal conductance (gs), net assimilation rate (A), water use efficiency (WUE), root volume (RV), stem diameter (SD), total dry weight (TDW), fruit fresh weight (FFW), and total soluble solids (TSS) of hydroponic melon submitted to the application of nicotinamide and A. brasilense. Treatments = control; Nico (nicotinamide); Azos (A. brasilense), and Nico + Azos (nicotinamide + A. brasilense).
Figure 7. Canonical correlation analysis among transpiration (E), stomatal conductance (gs), net assimilation rate (A), water use efficiency (WUE), root volume (RV), stem diameter (SD), total dry weight (TDW), fruit fresh weight (FFW), and total soluble solids (TSS) of hydroponic melon submitted to the application of nicotinamide and A. brasilense. Treatments = control; Nico (nicotinamide); Azos (A. brasilense), and Nico + Azos (nicotinamide + A. brasilense).
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Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

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MDPI and ACS Style

Ribeiro, V.; Vendruscolo, E.P.; Conceição, J.S.; Lima, S.F.d.; Binotti, F.F.d.S.; Bortolheiro, F.P.d.A.P.; Oliveira, C.E.d.S.; Costa, E.; Lafleur, L. Plant–Vitamin–Microorganism Interaction in Hydroponic Melon Cultivation. Horticulturae 2024, 10, 1329. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10121329

AMA Style

Ribeiro V, Vendruscolo EP, Conceição JS, Lima SFd, Binotti FFdS, Bortolheiro FPdAP, Oliveira CEdS, Costa E, Lafleur L. Plant–Vitamin–Microorganism Interaction in Hydroponic Melon Cultivation. Horticulturae. 2024; 10(12):1329. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10121329

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ribeiro, Vanessa, Eduardo Pradi Vendruscolo, Jessé Santarém Conceição, Sebastião Ferreira de Lima, Flávio Ferreira da Silva Binotti, Fernanda Pacheco de Almeida Prado Bortolheiro, Carlos Eduardo da Silva Oliveira, Edilson Costa, and Luc Lafleur. 2024. "Plant–Vitamin–Microorganism Interaction in Hydroponic Melon Cultivation" Horticulturae 10, no. 12: 1329. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10121329

APA Style

Ribeiro, V., Vendruscolo, E. P., Conceição, J. S., Lima, S. F. d., Binotti, F. F. d. S., Bortolheiro, F. P. d. A. P., Oliveira, C. E. d. S., Costa, E., & Lafleur, L. (2024). Plant–Vitamin–Microorganism Interaction in Hydroponic Melon Cultivation. Horticulturae, 10(12), 1329. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10121329

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