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Article

Relationship Between Microbiological and Physicochemical Parameters in Water Bodies in Urabá, Colombia

by
Sirley Tatiana Páez-Gómez
,
Mónica María Zambrano-Ortiz
* and
Vladimir Giovanni Toro-Valencia
Marine and Coastal Systems Research Group—GISMAC, Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences, Institute of Marine Sciences, University of Antioquia, Carrera 28 # 107-49, Turbo 057840, Colombia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Processes 2026, 14(1), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14010035 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 11 September 2025 / Revised: 10 October 2025 / Accepted: 16 October 2025 / Published: 22 December 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Treatment Technology Based on Chemical Processing)
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Abstract

The presence of pathogens, toxic substances, and excess nutrients in rivers is due to the combination of industrial, agricultural, and livestock farming activities, as well as the absence of wastewater treatment plants and sewerage networks. River degradation is the result of these factors. The results from four monitoring campaigns of water quality, carried out between November 2023 and August 2024, in the rivers of northern Urabá, Colombia, are presented in this paper, and the relationships between physicochemical and microbiological parameters are assessed. Water samples from 16 sites, upstream, downstream, and within urban centers, as well as at the mouths of the Hobo, Zapata, and Damaquiel rivers, and two water bodies flowing into the coastal lagoon of Bahía El Uno are presented. Five water quality factors were analyzed at using Spearman’s correlation analysis (p = 0.005). The results revealed negative correlations between dissolved oxygen (DO) and coliforms (−0.49), and positive correlations between temperature and total dissolved solids (TDS) (0.365). The elevated content coliforms exceeding permissible Colombian standards to total coliforms (˂200 MPN/mL) and thermotolerance (1000 MPN/mL) reached 8,400,000 and 24,000,000 MPN/mL, respectively, indicating that urban discharges increase microbial loads and induce degradation of conditions in the study area.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Rivers are dynamic ecosystems whose physicochemical and biological compositions are determined by their interaction with the atmosphere, soil, and biota. However, the combination of industrial, agricultural and livestock activities, mining, deforestation, among many others, exerts increasing pressure on these systems, affecting their quality and availability [1,2,3].
The environmental state of a region is often reflected in its rivers, as they carry, or are depositories of, large amounts of waste generated by anthropogenic activities, which may cause varying degrees of alteration [4]. However, natural events such as hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods, and erosion also contribute materials and substances to rivers that, together with runoff, are transported and eventually deposited in the marine environment [5,6,7]. Globally, about 80% of all industrial and domestic wastewater is discharged with no prior treatment, bringing detrimental effects to the water bodies receiving it [8]. This is due to a lack of adequate wastewater treatment plants and sewage networks, and means that pathogens, toxic substances, and excess nutrients enter rivers. Wastewater discharges are among the main drivers of impacts associated with aquatic ecosystem degradation, increasing the risk of disease and diminishing the water quality [8,9,10]. The resulting ecological imbalances lead to a significant reduction in global biodiversity and negative effects on socio-economic growth [10], as aquatic ecosystems provide a wide variety of goods and services, many of which are irreplaceable [11,12].
When wastewater enters an aquatic environment, biotic and abiotic parameters are affected; the concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO) can be reduced by the presence of organic and microbiological pollutants [13]. This parameter provides information related to biological and biochemical reactions in the aquatic environment and is therefore important in determining the quality of water [14].
Water quality can also be analyzed by assessing the presence of organisms, thermo-tolerant coliforms being a reference, as they are indicators of fecal contamination, and their presence is associated with risks to aquatic life and human health [15]. A high load of coliforms in a water body can represent a health risk, as it not only alters the balance of the ecosystem, but also affects the uses to which water can be put, making it unviable for human consumption, recreation, and other activities, such as agriculture and domestic use [16]. In the Urabá region, wastewater treatment is often lacking, and microorganisms of fecal origin are commonplace, meaning that water quality is compromised.
Although there is a variety of research on the coastal ecosystem of the Gulf of Urabá, specific studies addressing water quality in the region’s rivers are scarce [17], especially for the Urabá region of Antioquia. The physicochemical and microbiological characteristics of the surface waters of 10 rivers in Urabá were recently evaluated, along with the influence of agro-industrial activities and human intervention on water quality [17]. How-ever, the northeast rivers of this region were not included in this study.
Considering the above, there is an imperative to assess the water quality in rivers located in the eastern sector of the Gulf of Urabá and to investigate current river water pollution. The objectives of the present research were to provide baseline data on the water quality based on physicochemical characteristics and assessments of microbial contamination.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The study area lies close to the Gulf of Urabá, in the state of Antioquia, northern Colombia. It has a tropical climate, with marked seasonal variations, determined by the movements of the Intertropical Convergence Zone, giving two main seasons: a dry season, with lower rainfall and higher temperatures, and a wet season, with higher rainfall and runoff [18]. The dry season typically runs from December to April, while the rainy season lasts from May to November [19].
In the Gulf of Urabá, the temperature ranges from 19 to 40 °C, with a mean annual of 27 °C, while rainfall is between 40 and 100 mm/month [20], and the relative humidity is approximately 85.9%, climatic characteristics of a tropical rainforest [21]. The seasonal variations of various parameters in surface waters were analyzed.
Four sampling campaigns were carried out, the first in November 2023 (dry season, DS), the others in January (DS), April, and August 2024 (wet season, WS).
Sixteen sampling sites were selected, four each on the Zapata, Damaquiel, and Hobo rivers, and in the streams of Bahía el Uno (Figure 1), including sites influenced by the villages of Zapata, Damaquiel, Hobo River, and Bahía el Uno, respectively (Table 1).
These sites were chosen so as to evaluate the possible influence of urban discharges, considering areas before, within, and after the settlements on each tributary, as well as at its mouth.
In the case of Bahía el Uno, two streams running into the lagoon were sampled, upstream and downstream of the village; the coastal lagoon registers a change in the location of its natural entrance, currently located in the northern area, with greater influence from the mouth of the Turbo River.

2.2. Analytical Protocols

The analytical protocols implemented are based on Standard Methods [22], and the quality controls applied to each sample batch (20) are as follows: determination and application of the method limit of quantification, analysis of the reagent or method blank (MBB), analysis of controls, laboratory control standard/laboratory-fortified blank, laboratory-enriched matrix, and analysis of duplicate samples/laboratory-fortified matrix duplicates (LFMD).
Sampling was carried out based on the “Water Monitoring and Tracking Protocol” [23] and, like the laboratory analyses, is accredited by the Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology, and Environmental Studies—IDEAM.

2.3. Sampling

Quality controls related to the measurement of in situ parameters were performed directly in the water body, following the order of recording: temperature (T), dissolved oxygen (DO), potential hydrogen (pH), and dissolved solids (DSs). Given that spot sampling was carried out, at least one duplicate sample was taken for these parameters.
Physicochemical parameters were measured in situ, and surface water samples were collected for laboratory analysis, following the methodology of the Standard Methods [22]. Temperature, DO, pH, and total dissolved solids (TDSs) were recorded using a multi-parameter probe (HQ40D, Hach, Loveland, CO, USA).
For each of the four sampling campaigns, spot samples were collected at all 16 established sampling sites. Water samples were also taken using Winkler bottles for laboratory determination of DO (Winkler method), fixing the samples in situ.
For the evaluation of microbiological quality (total coliforms and thermotolerant coliforms), water samples were taken using previously sterilized Schott glass containers of 250 mL capacity, which were submerged and opened under water, filling them partially.
Each sample was properly labelled, sealed, and stored for transport to the analytical laboratory at a temperature of approximately 4 °C. The method used for the determination of total coliforms (TCs) and thermotolerant coliforms (TTCs) was the most probable number (MPN).

2.4. Data Analysis

An analysis of the data was carried out using the Lilliefors test (Kolmogórov–Smirnov, p < 0.05), establishing that the data were not distributed normally. Therefore, Spearman’s non-parametric correlation tests were used to evaluate the relationship between DO, temperature, and coliforms. Correlation analysis determines whether the relationship between two variables is present or absent, and that two variables are associated to a degree, and the significance is based on a p-value of less than 0.05. The Spearman Correlation Analysis for the parameters evaluated was visualized with a heatmap.
For seasonal analysis (wet versus dry), water bodies were compared using the Mann–Whitney U test (p < 0.05).
Statistical analyses and graphs representing the distribution of the data were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics 30.0 (Infórmese SPSS Andino, Bogotá, Colombia) and RStudio 2025.05.1 Build 513 (free version and open source for general use) to generate the heatmap and principal component analysis (PCA).
Figure 2 shows the methodological framework used in this study. The results obtained were compared with the values established in the Colombian environmental and health regulations to determine the extent to which they adhere to the standards regarding possible risks associated with the use of water.
Resolution [24] establishes that coliforms should not be recorded in water intended for human consumption. Decree [25] establishes water quality criteria for agricultural use, under which total coliforms (TCs) must not exceed 5000 MPN/100 mL and 1000 MPN/100 mL for thermotolerant coliforms (TTCs). The same decree establishes recreational levels of 1000 MPN/100 mL for TCs and 2000 MPN/100 mL for TTCs. Regarding the admissible quality criteria for the final use of water, for human and domestic consumption, concentrations lower than 200 MPN/100 mL for TCs and 1000 MPN/100 mL for TTCs are established.
Decree [26] adapts the single regulatory decree on the environment and sustainable development in Colombia [27] for the admissible quality criteria for the end use of water, for human and domestic consumption.

3. Results

3.1. Physicochemical Variables

The results obtained for the parameters evaluated are provided in Appendix A. Table 2 shows the descriptive statistic values for each of the study variables, along with the reference values specified in the Colombian regulations.
The highest surface temperature recorded was at the river mouth Bahía el Uno (B4) (33.7 °C) in the last sampling, corresponding to the wet season (August), while the lowest record (26.9 °C) was obtained in the Hobo River in the first sampling, in the dry season (November). The temperature variation was lowest in April (29.8–32.8 °C) and highest in August (29.0–33.7 °C); both periods correspond to the wet season.
There was greatest variability in the second and fourth sampling, both of which are related to changes in weather conditions between seasons (Figure 3). Sites in Bahía El Uno had the highest temperatures (Figure 3a); in contrast, sites on the Damaquiel River (D1–D4) had low temperatures and less variability.
There was significant variability between sampling points in the concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO), 0.25 mg/L to 9.11 mg/L, in Bahía el Uno during the January sampling and in the Zapata River, respectively, with both data corresponding to the dry season (DS1). In Bahía el Uno, sites B2 and B3 had the lowest values, 3.3 mg/L and 3.11 mg/L, respectively. In contrast, sites on the Hobo River (H2) and Zapata River (Z2 and Z3) had the highest concentrations, 9.02 mg/L and 9.11 mg/L (Figure 3b).
Regarding the pH of the water, relatively stable values were seen for all the sampling sites, varying between 6.69 and 8.40 (Figure 3c), values within the acceptable range according to environmental regulations in Colombia (4.0–9.0). The values recorded in November (DS1) were the most extreme, with a minimum and maximum of 6.69 and 8.4, respectively. In the last sampling corresponding to WS2 there was less variation (7.31–7.87).
The values for total dissolved solids (TDSs) varied greatly, with a minimum concentration of 3.73 mg/L and a maximum of over 15,000 mg/L (Figure 3d). In the first sampling, the recorded concentrations were 79.7–15,000 mg/L; in the second, from 125.8 to 12,470 mg/L; in the third, 3.73–699 mg/L; and in the fourth sampling, values ranged from 98.8 to >15,000 mg/L.
TDS values were particularly high at sites established at river mouths and in the village centers. A wide variability was presented in TDS concentration, with levels over 14,000 mg/L at sites B4 and Z4. In contrast, sites such as D1, H1, H2, Z1, Z2, and to a lesser extent B1, had low and stable concentrations.

3.2. Microbiological Variables

Table 2 shows the values recorded in microbiological variables at the sampling sites, and the reference values given in Colombian regulations. The concentrations of thermotolerant coliforms (TTCs) ranged from 20 to 8,400,000 NMP/100 mL (Figure 4a), recorded in the DS1 (H2) and WS1 (B2), respectively. The highest concentrations and most variability were in Bahía el Uno, while in the Hobo River, especially, the concentrations were substantially lower.
With respect to total coliform (TC) values, expressed in NMP/100 mL, it is seen that the sites in Bahía el Uno (B1, B2, and B4) had the highest concentrations, especially the site at the river mouth (B4), the one with the greatest variability (Figure 4b).

3.3. Mann–Whitney U Test

The seasonal analysis (wet versus dry) for each water body (Table 3), showed significant differences for the TDS in the Damaquiel River (p = 0.012).

3.4. Spearman Correlation Analysis

Of the parameters evaluated, only the temperature values had a normal distribution (p > 0.05), which is why Spearman’s correlation coefficient was used to evaluate the relationships between the variables. The results obtained from this analysis are presented in Table 4.
A moderate negative correlation was identified between DO and thermotolerant coliforms (r = −0.495; p < 0.05), as well as with total coliforms (r = −0.484; p < 0.05), indicating that higher bacterial loads are associated with lower oxygen levels. Negative and significant correlations were also identified between coliforms and TDSs (r = −0.277; r = −0.307; p < 0.05), and with temperature (r = −0.294; r = −0.270; p < 0.05); however, no significant correlation was observed between temperature and DO (r = 0.017; p = 0.892). In contrast, TDSs and temperature showed a moderate positive correlation (r = 0.365; p = 0.003) (Figure 5).
Principal component analysis (PCA) identified the gradients of variation in the physicochemical and microbiological parameters of the evaluated water bodies (Figure 6).
The first principal component (PC1) accounts for 44% of the variance, which was determined primarily by total coliforms (TCs) and thermotolerant coliforms (TTCs), whose vectors were oriented toward the positive values of the axis, and by dissolved oxygen (DO), which was located at the opposite extreme. On the other hand, the second principal component (PC2), which accounted for 12.4% of the variance, was associated with temperature and total dissolved solids (TDSs), both of which exhibited vectors directed toward the positive values on the axis.
Bahía el Uno presented a wider dispersion, suggesting greater variability in the conditions of the analyzed variables. The Bahía el Uno sites presented increases in microbiological variables and decreases in dissolved oxygen.
The Zapata River, for its part, clustered in the central area of the biplot, indicating moderate coliform values (TCs and TTCs) and a more marked relationship with total dissolved solids (TDSs) and temperature compared to the Hobo River.
For the Zapata River, the ellipse suggests less internal variability among its sampling points. In contrast, the Hobo River concentrated toward the negative sector of PC1, notable for its greater association with dissolved oxygen and lower microbiological load. The Damaquiel River, although less dispersed, was located in an intermediate position, showing influence from both dissolved solids and temperature, but with a lower presence of coliforms compared to Bahía el Uno and Zapata.

4. Discussion

The release of raw and improperly treated wastewater into watercourses has both short- and long-term effects on the environment and human health [28] because the inadequate disposal of human and animal excreta can contaminate water resources, causing high nutrients, decreased oxygen levels, and an increase in the number of pathogens in the water body [29,30].
The discharge of wastewater may have different effects on the microscopic species that comprise the foundation of water ecosystems [31]. These changes are directly reflected in the environment and, consequently, in water quality. This is particularly true in many developing countries, where sewage is often discharged directly into water courses due to the total, or partial, lack of sewage networks and treatment plants in many urban centers, as is the case in the coastal municipalities of Urabá, where the discharge of wastewater into natural watercourses deteriorates the water resource quality.

4.1. Physicochemical Parameters

For the water bodies evaluated, the variation of physicochemical and microbiological parameters showed differences between sites and between climatic periods, with the greatest variations seen in the data from the sampling sites in Bahía el Uno, except for pH, which varied more at sites in the Hobo River, and in the Zapata River mouth.
The pH data were stable within the normative range (4.0–9.0), with values between 6.69 and 8.1, neutral and slightly alkaline, as described for other rivers in Urabá, where the values recorded were 7.1 and 8.2 [17]. There was little variability between the sampling sites, suggesting that this variable is not a critical risk factor in the water bodies evaluated.
In rivers, the temperature is largely controlled by incoming solar radiation [32,33]. The temperature data ranged from 26.9 to 33.7 °C, reflecting the climatic conditions of the region, and variations that occur in lotic systems, where this parameter fluctuates on daily, seasonal [34,35], and interannual time scales, and along the longitudinal axis of the channel [35], and is also influenced by latitude and tends to correlate with air temperature [33,36,37].
The highest temperatures were recorded in August 2024 (WS2), reaching values from 29.0 to 33.7 °C. Such temperatures generate favorable conditions for microbial proliferation, increasing bacterial activity. According to [38], the environmental conditions of high temperatures and high concentrations of nutrients in tropical aquatic ecosystems could favor the proliferation of E. coli.
The lowest variability in temperature was seen in the DS2 (3.0 °C), followed by the WS1 (3.3 °C).
Temperature behavior was influenced by an El Niño event, starting in the second half of 2023. According to [34], the phenomenon reached its peak between November 2023 and January 2024 before dissipating and extending its influence until March [39,40]. In all periods evaluated during the present study, a precipitation deficit was recorded in the Colombian southern Caribbean [41,42,43,44] according to the reference values for this region [45].
Temperature has a direct or indirect effect on various physical and chemical processes, which are determinant in the distribution of organisms [46,47,48]. Its effect on the saturation constants of dissolved gases means that high temperatures reduce the concentration of these gases, which can intensify the effects of pollution [49]. In this way, DO responds to temperature variations, but also to oxygenation processes that include wind action, interaction with the atmosphere, and the activity of photosynthetic organisms.
Throughout the samplings, the average DO was 5.32 ± 2.05 mg/L, indicating that in general terms, the concentrations remained at acceptable levels for aquatic life (≥4.0 mg/L). The greatest variations and the lowest concentrations were found in the water bodies of Bahía el Uno. However, DO was not significantly correlated with temperature, despite the fact that Bahía el Uno recorded high temperatures and low DO concentrations, contrary to the behavior reported by [50], which reported a significant negative correlation between temperature and dissolved oxygen (DO) in Mexican water bodies.
This difference could be attributed to the high loads of organic matter derived from untreated wastewater in the systems evaluated here, which alter the typical physico-chemical dynamics. In these water bodies, the DO seems to be conditioned by factors such as microbial activity associated with pollution, rather than by thermal variations.
The lowest variability in DO was seen in April (WS), followed by November (DS), with the lowest records equivalent to 0.25 mg/L, determined during January (DS) and August (WS) at various sampling sites. DO results were relatively stable, except for the sampling sites in Bahía el Uno (Figure 3), where the low concentrations recorded could compromise aquatic life, and therefore the equilibrium of these water bodies.
In Bahía el Uno, there is a significant contribution of wastewater, which alters the oxygen balance of the water, with B2 being the most critical site, recording very low DO levels (0.25 mg/L). These conditions also limit the possible use of water due to the presence of bacteria, including coliform groups. These bacteria increase dissolved oxygen consumption, which is also affected by the presence of decomposer microorganisms. Both situations increase anaerobic conditions, leading to increased survival of bacteria, such as coliforms in water contaminated with fecal matter [51].
In a riverbed, oxygen consumption is relevant to biological and chemical processes, and very important in the decomposition of organic matter and with the sediments pre-sent at the bottom of a river [52]. Oxygen consumption also varies due to the presence of microorganisms, which influences the availability of oxygen, and therefore its study, as it allows for understanding the relationship between the physical and microbiological parameters of water.

4.2. Microorganisms—Coliforms

Microorganisms constitute the fundamental compartments of aquatic ecosystems because of their high concentration and activities [53]. However, pathogenic contamination of water contains significant health risks to aquatic environments and human beings. The microbiological results gave the highest concentrations of thermotolerant coliforms (8,400,000 NMP/100 mL) and total coliforms (24,000,000 NMP/100 mL) in January (DS2) and November (DS1), respectively, with an average of 399,812 ± 1,405,339 NMP/100 mL for thermotolerant coliforms and 1,542,043 ± 4,097,424 NMP/100 mL for total coliforms. These values far exceed the maximums allowed in Colombian regulations (200 and 1000 NMP/100 mL, respectively), evidencing high fecal contamination in the water bodies evaluated.
The high concentrations of coliforms in Bahía El Uno (especially at B2 and B3) indicate the considerable load of fecal contamination associated with the direct discharge of untreated domestic wastewater. Similar findings were shown in other studies [15,54,55,56], which identified urban areas as the main sources of microbiological deterioration in tropical rivers.
The highest records of coliforms occurred during the dry season, a period in which high water temperatures prevail, a behavior that has been reported in various studies [57]. However, elevated concentrations of coliforms in surface waters are often observed during periods of high precipitation, generated by processes such as sediment resuspension, microbial reactivation, surface runoff, and stormwater inputs [58,59,60,61].
Seasonal variation and population growth influence coliform bacteria concentrations, as is the case in Bahía el Uno and other water bodies. A temporal analysis of the Brunei River showed significant increases in total coliform concentrations during the rainy season, along with persistent background contamination during the dry season [56].
In Colombia, the relationship between water pollution and the proliferation of waterborne diseases mainly affects infants under one year of age and children from 1 to 4 years of age [62], a problem related to the inappropriate use of water resources affected by the discharge of effluents receiving fecal matter, which increase the bacterial load in the water bodies.
Coliforms can grow in natural surface waters due to the large amount of organic matter and high temperatures [63,64]. Bahía el Uno receives a significant amount of wastewater discharges, not only from homes in this area, but also from a sector of the municipality of Turbo, through a natural drain that receives wastewater and was channeled to this sector, causing further deterioration.
For the remaining sites, the highest coliform concentrations occurred in April (WS1). This behavior is related to the carryover of stagnant water in some sectors due to the low rainfall recorded from the second half of 2023 to March 2024. These waters are carried away by rainfall, increasing the concentration of microorganisms in the receiving water bodies.

4.3. Eutrophication Conditions—Urbanization

Wastewater and other waste discharges generate excessive organic matter, and also promote eutrophication processes, that bring an increase in the concentration of nutrients and thereby, of phytoplanktonic organisms. This leads to mortality, and growth of aerobic microorganisms that consume oxygen, and reduces the availability of this gas in the eco-system [65,66]. In Bahía el Uno, OD concentrations of far less than 2.0 mg/L were record-ed, and these conditions hinder the survival of many species.
The increase in eutrophication and associated hypoxia/anoxia (hypoxia < 2.0 mg/L, anoxia < 0.5 mg/L), influenced by rising temperatures combined with the acidification of susceptible waterbodies, is detrimental to ecosystem function [67,68]. The results indicate that among the study sites, Bahía el Uno was the only sector that recorded anoxic (B2) and hypoxic conditions, except during the sampling carried out in the WS corresponding to April, demonstrating the repercussions of inadequate wastewater management on the trophic state of the water bodies in this sector.
Sampling sites in Bahía el Uno feature shallow waters with low circulation; this causes changes in the trophic status of water bodies, resulting in greater deterioration in this sector compared to sites established on rivers. It is worth noting that the contribution of organic matter is significant after prolonged periods of little or no rainfall since when it occurs, much of the accumulated material is removed and transported to these bodies of water.
This material is primarily composed of domestic waste. The pollutant load is represented by high percentages of organic matter and microorganisms of fecal origin. The ability of fecal bacteria to survive in water indicates that their presence in this environment is associated with recent infections or with the presence of suitable conditions (pH, temperature, humidity, and organic matter) [69].
The organic load generated by household waste contains organic carbon, nitrogen, and pathogens attached to particles such as sand [70]. The entry of this contaminant load requires oxygen for decomposition and respiration processes, which explains the moder-ate negative correlation determined between DO and coliform concentrations. Fecal contamination favors microbial activity and reduces DO availability, as has been recorded in other water bodies in [13,71].
On the other hand, the differences in TDS concentration among the sampling sites suggest that their sources may respond to specific local conditions, such as the presence of sites with a higher degree of urbanization, the amount of wastewater discharged, and the self-purification capacity of each water body.
TDS data show a positive, significant correlation with temperature, coinciding with results reported by [72], which attributed this relationship to evaporation processes that increase the concentration of solutes in the water. This suggests that the higher ionic con-centration generated during warmer periods could favor eutrophication processes or alter microbial dynamics. This parameter is highly variable (19.85–>15,000 mg/L), with an average of 2777 ± 3964 mg/L. The highest levels were recorded in the DS (November) and WS (August), suggesting a significant contribution of organic load and pollutants of anthropogenic origin in both periods.
The high concentrations of TDSs determined directly affect the availability of oxygen present in water bodies. This is related to the fact that the highest TDS records were found at sites with the highest incidence of urbanization.
The relationship between the variables evaluated shows a pattern with high temperatures, coliform concentrations, and TDSs, and a tendency toward low DO levels, favoring bacterial growth processes that accentuate deoxygenation and negatively affect water quality.

4.4. Implications, Limitations, and Priorities

The interaction between variables underlines the need for monitoring that generates information on the ecological status of water bodies, and an integrated approach that simultaneously considers microbiological, physicochemical, pollutant, and climatic factors. In this regard, expanding the analysis of the group of microorganisms that indicate contamination would be extremely useful for characterizing these environments, as would implementing methods that offer greater specificity and speed compared to traditional culture methods, which are available in the two accredited laboratories in the region.
Overall, the results reflect deterioration and contamination in most of the water bodies analyzed. On the other hand, the criteria established in Colombian regulations are not met, especially for coliforms, which represent risks to the ecosystem and public health. Unfortunately, this situation is also seen in other water bodies across the country, as re-ported by [73]. However, several municipalities in the region are currently demanding re-sources to implement projects to expand sewage systems and install wastewater treatment plants, essential actions for proper wastewater management and environmental protection.

5. Conclusions

This study analyzed the relationship between physicochemical and microbiological water parameters and their impact on resource quality. Fecal contamination was identified in the assessed water bodies due to the discharge of untreated wastewater. The parameters analyzed showed deterioration, particularly dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration. Bahía el Uno was the sector’s greatest impact by wastewater influence. The high concentration of coliforms detected poses a serious threat to human health. Therefore, there is a necessity for steps to reduce this contamination and improve water quality to protect the community from extensive waterborne diseases, and also, to restore the quality of these aquatic environments. The results highlight the need to implement adequate wastewater management and treatment measures in these sectors.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.T.P.-G., M.M.Z.-O. and V.G.T.-V.; Methodology, S.T.P.-G., M.M.Z.-O. and V.G.T.-V.; Software, S.T.P.-G.; Validation, S.T.P.-G. and M.M.Z.-O.; Formal analysis, S.T.P.-G. and M.M.Z.-O.; Investigation, S.T.P.-G., M.M.Z.-O. and V.G.T.-V.; Resources, V.G.T.-V.; Data curation, S.T.P.-G.; Writing—original draft, S.T.P.-G. and M.M.Z.-O.; Writing—review & editing, M.M.Z.-O. and V.G.T.-V.; Supervision, M.M.Z.-O.; Project administration, V.G.T.-V.; Funding acquisition, V.G.T.-V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the General System of Royalties (SGR): “Implementation of a rural citizen network to monitor environmental and biological variables associated with high prevalence diseases in coastal communities of Turbo, Necoclí, Arboletes and San Juan de Urabá—Red COCO, Department of Antioquia” (BPIN-2021000100254) and “Implementation of strategies for the construction and social appropriation of knowledge on biodiversity in Urabá, Antioquia” (BPIN-2020000100304). Additionally, the authors would also like to thank microbiologist María Alejandra Carrillo and Catalina Cortes for their contributions. The APC was funded by the General System of Royalties (SGR): Red COCO.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
TCsTotal coliforms
TTCsThermotolerant coliforms
°CCentigrade degrees
SDStandard deviation
GISMACMarine and coastal systems research group
IDEAMColombian Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology, and Environmental Studies (Instituto de hidrología, meteorología y estudios ambientales de Colombia).
mLMilliliter
mm/monthMillimeters per month
mg/LMilligrams per liter
MPNMost probable number
MPN/100 mLMost probable number per 100 milliliters
DODissolved oxygen
TDSsTotal dissolved solids

Appendix A

Table A1. Physicochemical and microbiological parameters assessed at the sampling sites in Bahia el Uno: water temperature (T), dissolved oxygen (DO), potential hydrogen (pH), total dissolved solids (TDSs), thermotolerant coliforms (TTCs), and total coliforms (TCs).
Table A1. Physicochemical and microbiological parameters assessed at the sampling sites in Bahia el Uno: water temperature (T), dissolved oxygen (DO), potential hydrogen (pH), total dissolved solids (TDSs), thermotolerant coliforms (TTCs), and total coliforms (TCs).
ParameterUnitDry Season 1Dry Season 2Wet Season 1Wet Season 2
B1B2B3B4B1B2B3B4B1B2B3B4B1B2B3B4
TTCs (×104)MPN/100 mL3.2356.3220280840120.926.133049.20.007863070.049
TCs (×104)2435352400920110014054110170017260.0078920540.079
DOmg/L3.870.482.42.011.440.252.25.455.773.132.272.895.510.263.117.72
pH7.47.247.197.247.27.37.086.977.347.357.37.27.437.757.437.83
TDSs37069418643840460814190365004404805133.7392221637280>15,000
T°C29.329.328.530.930.632.830.732.129.827.829.531.131.530.332.733.7
Table A2. Physicochemical and microbiological parameters assessed at the sampling sites in Zapata River: water temperature (T), dissolved oxygen (DO), potential hydrogen (pH), total dissolved solids (TDSs), thermotolerant coliforms (TTCs), and total coliforms (TCs).
Table A2. Physicochemical and microbiological parameters assessed at the sampling sites in Zapata River: water temperature (T), dissolved oxygen (DO), potential hydrogen (pH), total dissolved solids (TDSs), thermotolerant coliforms (TTCs), and total coliforms (TCs).
ParameterUnitDry Season 1Dry Season 2Wet Season 1Wet Season 2
Z1Z2Z3Z4Z1Z2Z3Z4Z1Z2Z3Z4Z1Z2Z3Z4
TTCs (×104)MPN/100 mL0.220.24.10.210.40.20.360.18420.783.70.430.132.70.079
TCs (×104)9.211249.21415116.3404916079120.13210.11
DOmg/L6.536.356.476.373.427.49.117.186.967.026.876.827.07.797.96.0
pH7.997.887.998.47.587.37.677.587.387.737.577.647.87.727.687.31
TDSs455457113215,00064664911830124705763433906996424991599>15,000
T°C29.529.728.930.331.131.332.131.228.828.728.928.229.630.730.331.5
Table A3. Physicochemical and microbiological parameters assessed at the sampling sites in Hobo River: water temperature (T), dissolved oxygen (DO), potential hydrogen (pH), total dissolved solids (TDSs), thermotolerant coliforms (TTCs), and total coliforms (TCs).
Table A3. Physicochemical and microbiological parameters assessed at the sampling sites in Hobo River: water temperature (T), dissolved oxygen (DO), potential hydrogen (pH), total dissolved solids (TDSs), thermotolerant coliforms (TTCs), and total coliforms (TCs).
ParameterUnitDry Season 1Dry Season 2Wet Season 1Wet Season 2
H1H2H3H4H1H2H3H4H1H2H3H4H1H2H3H4
TTCs (×104)NMP/100 mL0.680.0780.60.371.00.20.180.0360.43.60.41.80.0220.0020.0130.022
TCs (×104)355.435280.0175.44.33.515350544.00.130.0110.0490.17
DOmg/L6.354.375.75.834.249.026.725.936.325.225.596.927.148.176.796.4
pH7.286.697.127.237.577.57.767.87.697.727.997.07.747.737.597.72
TDSs50879.727204800766125.833003360631153.68.1719.8548798.818709650
T°C26.929.227.928.630.731.830.830.930.130.129.829.930.630.130.930.7
Table A4. Physicochemical and microbiological parameters assessed at the sampling sites in Damaquiel River: water temperature (T), dissolved oxygen (DO), potential hydrogen (pH), total dissolved solids (TDSs), thermotolerant coliforms (TTCs), and total coliforms (TCs).
Table A4. Physicochemical and microbiological parameters assessed at the sampling sites in Damaquiel River: water temperature (T), dissolved oxygen (DO), potential hydrogen (pH), total dissolved solids (TDSs), thermotolerant coliforms (TTCs), and total coliforms (TCs).
ParameterUnitDry Season 1Dry Season 2Wet Season 1Wet Season 2
D1D2D3D4D1D2D3D4D1D2D3D4D1D2D3D4
TTCs (×104)NMP/100 mL1.20.20.240.20.360.0370.0610.0553640616.10.0170.0490.280.13
TCs (×104)127.99.27.9125.49.27.92203303202200.0790.240.920.35
DOmg/L5.445.95.55.53.582.774.283.825.725.395.45.36.826.25.015.5
pH7.717.577.667.557.47.327.397.317.87.07.367.167.677.877.367.61
TDSs987777185647604370704075507730352364246366587119920103340
T°C28.72928.828.831.830.429.830.528.628.228.729.12929.331.129.3

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Figure 1. Location of the study area, and sampling sites in the water bodies in Urabá.
Figure 1. Location of the study area, and sampling sites in the water bodies in Urabá.
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Figure 2. Methodological framework used in the current study.
Figure 2. Methodological framework used in the current study.
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Figure 3. Distribution of physicochemical parameters recorded at the sampling sites: (a) temperature (°C), (b) dissolved oxygen (mg/L), (c) pH, (d) total dissolved solids (mg/L).
Figure 3. Distribution of physicochemical parameters recorded at the sampling sites: (a) temperature (°C), (b) dissolved oxygen (mg/L), (c) pH, (d) total dissolved solids (mg/L).
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Figure 4. Distribution of coliforms recorded at the sampling sites: (a) thermotolerant coliforms (MPN/100 mL), (b) total coliforms (MPN/100 mL).
Figure 4. Distribution of coliforms recorded at the sampling sites: (a) thermotolerant coliforms (MPN/100 mL), (b) total coliforms (MPN/100 mL).
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Figure 5. Correlation matrix heat map of physicochemical and microbiological parameters evaluated, and Spearman’s correlation values (within the colored squares).
Figure 5. Correlation matrix heat map of physicochemical and microbiological parameters evaluated, and Spearman’s correlation values (within the colored squares).
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Figure 6. Spatial and temporal distribution of the seasons according to the parameters evaluated in both seasons of the year (dry and wet).
Figure 6. Spatial and temporal distribution of the seasons according to the parameters evaluated in both seasons of the year (dry and wet).
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Table 1. Location of sampling sites.
Table 1. Location of sampling sites.
Water BodySite LocationCoordinates
Bahia el UnoB1Before the entrance to Bahia el Uno8°06′46″–76°43′22″
B2New canal—before the entrance to Bahía el Uno8°06′8.276″–76°43′38.5″
B3Caño el Uno *8°06′31″–76°44′11″
B4River mouth8°06′18″–76°44′20″
Zapata RiverZ1Upstream, away from the entrance to Zapata8°40′328″–76°37′59″
Z2Before entering to Zapata8°40′36″–76°38′42″
Z3Zapata *8°40′33″–76°38′02″
Z4River mouth8°44′10.0″–76°38′15″
Hobo RiverH1Upstream before the entrance to Hobo River8°49′09.7″–76°26′30.9″
H2Pond8°59′48.6″–76°26′17.8″
H3Hobo river *8°50′44.3″–76°26′27.7″
H4River mouth8°50′45.9″–76°26′27.3″
Damaquiel RiverD1Last stream flowing into the river—before Damaquiel8°44′10.0″–76°36′23.3″
D2Entrance to the river8°44′08.2″–76°36′24″
D3Damaquiel *8°44′22.5″–76°36′18.1″
D4River mouth8°44′30.8″–76°36′14.3″
* Village center.
Table 2. Variation of the physicochemical and microbiological parameters assessed at the sampling sites. Descriptive statistics for water temperature (T), dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, total dissolved solids (TDSs), thermotolerant coliforms (TTCs), and total coliforms (TCs).
Table 2. Variation of the physicochemical and microbiological parameters assessed at the sampling sites. Descriptive statistics for water temperature (T), dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, total dissolved solids (TDSs), thermotolerant coliforms (TTCs), and total coliforms (TCs).
Sampling/MonthSeasonT
(°C)		DO
(mg/L)		pHTDS
(mg/L)		TTC
(MPN/100 mL)		TC
(MPN/100 mL)
1—NovemberDry (DS1)26.9–30.90.48–6.536.6–8.479.7–15,000780–22 × 10554,000–24 × 106
2—JanuaryDry (DS2)29.8–32.80.25–9.116.97–7.8125.8–12,470360–84 × 10535,000–11 × 106
3—AprilWet (WS1)27.8–31.12.27–7.027.00–7.993.73–6994000–33 × 10540,000–17 × 106
4—AugustWet (WS2)29.0–33.70.26–8.177.31–7.8798.8–>15,000 ▪20–63 × 10578–9.2 × 106
Range26.9–33.70.25–9.116.69–8.419.85–>15,00020–84 × 10578–24 × 106
Mean ± SD30.0 ± 1.35.32 ± 2.057.51 ± 0.302777 ± 3964399,812 ± 1,405,3391,542,043 ± 4,097,424
n646464646464
Reference-–-4.0 +4.5–9.0 *-–-˂200 **1000 **
▪ Concentration included (as the maximum concentration determined), to perform the statistical analysis. + Criteria for the preservation of Fauna and Flora [26]. * Water quality criteria for primary contact [26]. ** Admissible quality criteria for the end use of water for human and domestic consumption [24,25,26].
Table 3. Mann–Whitney U test for the parameters evaluated.
Table 3. Mann–Whitney U test for the parameters evaluated.
TTC
(MPN/100 mL)		TC
(MPN/100 mL)		OD
(mg/L)		TDS
(mg/L)		T
(°C)
Bahia el UnoMann–Whitney U24.00021.00016.00031.00028.000
Sig. (bilateral)0.4010.2470.0930.9160.674
Zapata RiverMann–Whitney U22.00020.00024.00022.50017.000
Sig. (bilateral)0.2930.2070.4010.3180.115
Hobo RiverMann–Whitney U26.00020.00021.00020.00029.000
Sig. (bilateral)0.5280.2070.2480.2080.752
Damaquiel RiverMann–Whitney U22.00032.00019.0008.00023.000
Sig. (bilateral)0.2931.0000.1710.0120.343
Table 4. Spearman Correlation Analysis for the parameters evaluated.
Table 4. Spearman Correlation Analysis for the parameters evaluated.
Spearman’s Rho
TTC
(MPN/100 mL)		TC
(MPN/100 mL)		DO
(mg/L)		TDS
(mg/L)		T
(°C)		pH
TTC
(MPN/100 mL)		Correlation coefficient1.0000.906−0.495−0.307−0.270−0.355
Sig. (bilateral) 0.0000.0000.0140.0310.004
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TC
(MPN/100 mL)		Correlation coefficient0.9061.000−0.484−0.277−0.294−0.319
Sig. (bilateral)0.000 0.0000.0260.0180.010
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DO
(mg/L)		Correlation coefficient−0.495−0.4841.000−0.0660.0170.495
Sig. (bilateral)0.0000.000 0.6070.8920.000
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TDS
(mg/L)		Correlation coefficient−0.307−0.277−0.0661.0000.3650.048
Sig. (bilateral)0.0140.0260.607 0.0030.709
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T
(°C)		Correlation coefficient−0.270−0.2940.0170.3651.0000.039
Sig. (bilateral)0.0310.0180.8920.003 0.758
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pHCorrelation coefficient−0.355−0.3190.4950.0480.391.000
Sig. (bilateral)0.0040.0100.0000.7090.758
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Páez-Gómez, S.T.; Zambrano-Ortiz, M.M.; Toro-Valencia, V.G. Relationship Between Microbiological and Physicochemical Parameters in Water Bodies in Urabá, Colombia. Processes 2026, 14, 35. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14010035

AMA Style

Páez-Gómez ST, Zambrano-Ortiz MM, Toro-Valencia VG. Relationship Between Microbiological and Physicochemical Parameters in Water Bodies in Urabá, Colombia. Processes. 2026; 14(1):35. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14010035

Chicago/Turabian Style

Páez-Gómez, Sirley Tatiana, Mónica María Zambrano-Ortiz, and Vladimir Giovanni Toro-Valencia. 2026. "Relationship Between Microbiological and Physicochemical Parameters in Water Bodies in Urabá, Colombia" Processes 14, no. 1: 35. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14010035

APA Style

Páez-Gómez, S. T., Zambrano-Ortiz, M. M., & Toro-Valencia, V. G. (2026). Relationship Between Microbiological and Physicochemical Parameters in Water Bodies in Urabá, Colombia. Processes, 14(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14010035

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