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Article

Potential Use of the Fungus Trichoderma sp. as a Plastic-Reducing Agent and Electricity Generator in Microbial Fuel Cells

by
Rojas-Flores Segundo
1,2,*,
Pimentel-Castillo Rocío
1,
Cabanillas-Chirinos Luis
3 and
Luis M. Angelats Silva
4
1
Renewable Resources Nanotech Group, Universidad Cesar Vallejo, Trujillo 13001, Peru
2
Institutos y Centros de Investigación de la Universidad Cesar Vallejo, Universidad Cesar Vallejo, Trujillo 13001, Peru
3
Investigación Formativa e Integridad Científica, Universidad César Vallejo, Trujillo 13001, Peru
4
Laboratorio de Investigación Multidisciplinaria, Universidad Privada Antenor Orrego, Trujillo 13008, Peru
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Processes 2024, 12(12), 2904; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12122904
Submission received: 16 October 2024 / Revised: 9 November 2024 / Accepted: 13 November 2024 / Published: 19 December 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Municipal Solid Waste for Energy Production and Resource Recovery)
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Abstract

:
The mismanagement of plastic waste, organic waste, and the shortage of electricity in remote villages has created significant challenges for industries and governments. Therefore, this research aims to utilize the fungus Trichoderma sp. as a catalyst in microbial fuel cells, where the novelty of the research is the generation of electricity and the degradation of plastic simultaneously. In this study, single-chamber microbial fuel cells were constructed using carbon (anode) and zinc (cathode) electrodes. The substrate consisted of 20 gr of potato waste and 1.5 × 1.5 cm samples of plastic waste, all combined in 390 mL of Bushnell broth, into which Trichoderma sp. was inoculated. The highest electrical readings were recorded on day 23, showing values of 5.648 ± 0.093 mA and 0.479 ± 0.025 V. On the same day, the pH level was measured at 7.046 ± 0.314, and the substrate’s electrical conductivity was found to be 155.135 ± 2.569 mS/cm. Over the 45-day monitoring period, the chemical oxygen demand decreased by 78.67%. The microbial fuel cells achieved a maximum power density of 68.140 ± 2.418 mW/cm2 at a current density of 4.719 mA/cm2, with an internal resistance of 23.647 ± 1.514 Ω. Analysis of the plastic using FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy) revealed a decrease in the intensity of spectral bands associated with hydroxyl groups, C-H structural groups, methyl groups, and C=C bonds. Additionally, SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) images demonstrated a reduction in the thickness of the plastic film and the formation of voids and sheets, highlighting the potential of Trichoderma sp. for plastic degradation.

1. Introduction

Organic waste has been utilized to reduce both organic and inorganic matter in environments, which can harm the wide variety of life in ecosystems [1,2]. Waste treatment must be carried out efficiently, considering the waste’s characteristics [3]. This advantage of using organic waste has generated significant interest from companies for its potential use in effluents containing high organic content [4]. Industries are the main generators of effluents with a variety and quantity of waste [5]. For instance, the dairy industry generates between 3.74 and 11.22 million cubic meters per year, nearly one-third of the processed milk [6]. In the dairy industry, the organic matter contained in its wastewater is from pasteurizers, dairy products such as butter, and the homogenization of liquid milk [7]. While the pharmaceutical industry generates a smaller amount of wastewater, it typically contains a high concentration of contaminants. This is due to the presence of non-biodegradable organic matter, including antibiotics, steroids (used for plants and animals), analgesics, reproductive hormones, lipid regulators, and other substances [8,9].
The global population has surged to an unprecedented 7.60 billion in 2022, doubling electrical energy consumption since 1980, from 270.5 EJ to over 580 EJ in 2022 [10,11]. As a result, governments and electricity companies have intensified their efforts to meet the rising demand, resulting in increased consumption costs [12]. However, many cities, especially in developing countries, do not need help accessing sufficient electrical energy due to their distance from large cities, posing a growing challenge [13]. Alternative and sustainable methods of electrical energy generation are being pursued to address this issue without harming the environment [14,15]. Among these, microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are a promising solution. MFCs, an emerging technology with diverse applications, have been utilized for wastewater treatment, organic waste processing, and heavy metal reduction, demonstrating their potential to revolutionize the energy landscape [16,17]. This potential makes MFCs a compelling and promising alternative to traditional fossil fuel-based electrical energy generation, offering additional benefits for society and businesses [18]. Electrical energy generation involves harnessing the catabolic activity of microbes present in the fuel source [19]. Various microorganisms have been used as biocatalysts to enhance electrical energy generation (electrogenic microorganisms) while concurrently reducing organic matter content [20]. Additionally, it has been shown that certain strains, such as electrogenic strains like Pseudomonas aeruginosa, can produce electrons through their endogenous mediators [21].
In the past decade, there have been reports of fungi being used in microbial fuel cells (MFCs) without mediators, and they have shown electrogenic potential. These findings suggest that fungi can direct electron transfer like bacteria [22]. Fungi can perform direct electron transfer through cytochrome. Recent studies have claimed that electron generation also occurs through redox-active enzymes, which contribute to electrogenic activity in MFCs [23,24]. Additionally, these enzymes can degrade various dye and xenobiotic compounds [25]. The capacity of fungi or their enzymes to degrade a range of organic contaminants has been compared [26]. Among various fungi, Trichoderma sp. is a potent candidate for plastic degradation [27]. It contains numerous strains of rhizocompetent filamentous fungi and can be found in multiple ecosystems, such as soil and water [28]. However, it is mainly prevalent in agricultural soils at different latitudes; the unique feature of the fungus Trichoderma sp. is its ability to degrade plastics through oxidative degradation, making it a promising solution for plastic waste management [29]. The potential of other fungi in MFCs has also been reported. For instance, the Pleurotus ostreatusfungus was utilized for treating domestic waste in MFCs, achieving a 62.1% reduction in organic matter with maximum voltage and power density values of 0.75 V and 190 mW/m2 over 21 days of operation [30]. In a recent study, Votat et al. (2024) used the fungus Trichoderma harzianum in double-chamber MFCs to reduce crystal violet dye, managing to reduce its initial concentration by 55% with a maximum power density of 1096 mW/m2 [31]. The fungus Aspergillus niger has also been employed to reduce contaminants in tannery effluents in double-chamber MFCs, achieving reductions of 94.2%, 77.9%, and 73% in total nitrogen, chemical oxygen demand, and chromium present in the substrates, and demonstrating maximum voltage values of 0.814 V and 0.097 mW/m2 of power density [32].
Since the first synthetic polymer was created in 1869, plastics have undergone various modifications and become one of the most challenging pollutants to disintegrate [33]. The widespread use of plastic is attributed to its inexpensive raw material and its flexibility for molding [34]. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency reported that 12% of the approximately 250 million tons of solid waste dumped is plastic waste [35]. Plastic production increased from 1.5 million tons in 1950 to more than 335 million tons in 2016, with an annual increase of 12% [36]. Furthermore, the presence of microorganisms in aquatic ecosystems has led to the discovery of microplastic residues inside animals [37]. In the literature review, using microbial fuel cells to reduce plastic through microorganisms is a novel approach that has yet to be reported, making the research results the first of their kind.
The primary goal of this research is to assess the potential of the fungus Trichoderma sp. in producing electrical energy, reducing COD, and degrading plastic using potato waste as a substrate. To achieve this, various parameters such as voltage, electric current, electrical conductivity, pH, electrical resistance, potential density as a function of current density, total nitrogen, oxidation-reduction potential, and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) were monitored for 45 days. Additionally, the initial and final FTIR (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy) spectra and the initial and final micrographs of the plastic will be documented. The novelty of the research is promising because it demonstrates the simultaneous degradation of plastic waste and the generation of electric energy. This research is the first report of these results using the fungus Trichoderma sp. as a catalyst, highlighting its potential for this function. Moreover, the versatility of microbial fuel cells to address multiple environmental issues and propose sustainable solutions is a reason for optimism.

2. Materials and Methods

A variety of conditions must be met for the use of microbial fuel cells, which will allow adequate monitoring of the physical-chemical-biological parameters. The conditions carried out for this research are found in the following subsections.

2.1. Construction and Operation of Single-Chamber MFCs

The company Xin Tester (Shanghai, China) constructed the single-chamber MFCs of 100 mL volume of silica (Si O2). They placed a zinc electrode (cathode) and a carbon electrode (anode) of 24.67 and 22.5 cm2 in area, respectively. Both electrodes were connected on the outside by a Rext. (external resistance) of 100 Ω. A Nafion was used as a PEM (proton exchange membrane) to separate the anodic and cathodic chambers (Figure 1).

2.2. Characterization of Electrochemical and Morphological Parameters

The voltage and electrical current values were monitored for 45 days using a digital multimeter (Truper MUT—830 Digital Multimeter, Lima, Peru and an external resistance of 100 Ω. The COD (chemical oxygen demand) values were measured using the closed reflux colorimetric method, a reliable technique in accordance with the NTP 360.502:2016 standard [38]. The internal resistance values of the MFC were measured using an energy sensor (Vernier- ± 30 V and ± 1000 mA) and Ohm’s Law (V = RI), with the voltage and electric current values plotted on the ‘Y’ and ‘X’ axis, respectively. The slope of the line fit represents the internal resistance of the MFC [38]. PD (power density) and CD (current density) values were determined using the method of Segundo et al. (2024) with external resistances of 0.3 (±0.1), 3 (±0.6), 10 (±1.3), 50 (±8.7), 100 (±9.3), 220 (±13), 460 (±23.1), 531 (±26.8), 700 (±40.5), and 1000 (±50.6) Ω [38]. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM, TESCAN VEGA 3 LM, Florida, USA). The transmittance spectra of the plastic films were investigated using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR, Thermo Scientific IS50, Florida, USA).

2.3. Obtaining the Plastic and Straw Waste Sample

The Landfill of El Milagro, Trujillo, Peru, was surveyed, and more than five years old garbage was found. A sample of 0.5 kg of plastic was taken from this area at a depth of 1 m. These samples were collected in sterile Petri dishes and labeled for transfer to Cesar Vallejo University Laboratory of Institutes and Research Centers. A 1.5 × 1.5 cm low-density polyethylene sheet obtained from the Landfill described above was used as a plastic sample. Furthermore, with the components ready to use and under sterile conditions, 20 g of the substrate (potato waste) was placed inside the MFC in 380 g of sterile Bushner broth and 1 g mL of the microbial inoculum (Paecilomyces hyphae).

2.4. Isolation and Selection of Trichoderma sp.

Under aseptic conditions, five plastic fragments of 2 × 2 cm (sample) were cut and placed in a bottle containing 100 mL of Sterile Physiological Saline Solution (SSFE) to be subjected to sonication in order to release the microbial community adhered to the plastic; then, 100 μL of the liquid part was taken and sown by the surface sowing method on plates with Sabouraud Dextrose agar with Chloramphenicol (SDAC), and incubated at 25 °C for 3 to 5 days. After the incubation, the developed fungi were replicated in the SDCA culture medium to obtain axenic cultures for identification [39]. The microculture method used the fungal identification process according to the Riddelen Technique for each isolated fungus [40]. Its morphology and fungal structure were compared with the taxonomic keys for filamentous fungi according to the identification guide of Barnett and Hunter [41]. Finally, the isolated fungi from the genus Trichoderma were used in the next stage of the present research work.

2.5. Obtaining the Spore Inoculum

The Trichoderma fungus was sown by puncture in 5 plates with SDAC culture medium and incubated at 25 °C for seven days. After incubation, spores’ growth on the colony’s surface was observed. Subsequently, the spore harvest was carried out by adding 2 mL of SSFE to the Trichoderma colony, and with the help of the Driglaski loop, the spores were detached into the liquid part, then with a sterile pipette, the supernatant of the spores was collected. Five plates and incorporated into a tube with 5 mL of SSFE where the initial concentration of spores was determined by counting in a New Bauer chamber. Inoculum standardization was performed by mixing the initial spore solution with SSFE until obtaining a volume of 50 mL with a final concentration of 5 × 105 spores × mL [42].

2.6. Installation of the Microbial Fuel Cell

Under sterile conditions, 400 g of sterile substrate (20 g of potato waste + 390 mL of Bushnell broth) and 10 mL of the Trichoderma spore inoculum (a suspension of 5 × 105 spores × mL) were placed inside the microbial fuel cell. A total of 400 mL of the mixed solution was obtained. Of the entire solution, 100 mL was placed in each microbial fuel cell. When each cell contained 100 mL, the plastic waste with an area of 1.5 × 1.5 cm2 was placed inside the MFC.

3. Results

The voltage values showed (Figure 2a) a slight increase in their values on the second day (0.033 ± 0.001 V) until day 23 (0.479 ± 0.025 V); subsequently, the values decreased until day 45 (0.302 ± 0.032 V), substrates’ carbon sources are the main generators of electric potential, and the Trichoderma fungus, consuming the plastic present in the substrate, begins to increase the potential values. The trend of the electric current generation in the MFCs can be observed in Figure 2b; the electric current values showed an increase from the second day (0.741 ± 0.001 mA) to day 23 (5.648 ± 0.093 mA) and then a decrease in values was observed until the last day (3.517 ± 0.105 mA); the electrons generated in the metabolic process of Trichoderma fungus produced electron flows, generating the electric current.
The pH trend, as depicted in Figure 3a, is a significant aspect of our research. The electrolyte, initially prepared at a pH of 4.20, showed a consistent increase until day 45 (8.394 ± 0.552). The peak voltage and electrical current values were recorded on day 23, coinciding with the substrate’s optimal pH of 7.046 ± 0.314. The conductivity values showed a successive increase until day 23, with a value of 155.135 ± 2.569 mS/cm. Then, a loss of electrical conductivity was observed until the last monitoring day (103,071 ± 4159 mS/cm); see Figure 3b. Figure 3c shows the monitoring of COD values during the 45 days, observing a decrease of 78.67% (325.65 ± 36.51 mg/L) compared to the first day (1525.25 ± 5.62 mg/L). This reduction in COD values is a direct result of the functioning of the MFCs. The Trichoderma fungus uses the carbon sources present to carry out its metabolism, and the MFCs play a crucial role in this process.
The maximum power density values observed were 68.140 ± 2.418 mW/cm2 at a current density of 4.719 mA/cm2 with a peak voltage of 481.414 ± 25.155 mV, Figure 4a. The calculated internal resistance value of the MFC was 23.647 ± 1.514 Ω; see Figure 4b. The literature has shown that when there is a decrease in organic matter rich in nutrients that serve for metabolism, they cause metabolic restrictions, which generate high values of the internal resistance of an MFC.
Figure 5 shows the FTIR spectrum, in its initial and final state of the plastic used, being able to observe a more significant presence of the hydroxyl groups (3428 and 1629 cm−1) and the C=C bonds due to the intensity of their peaks. In addition, the terminal methyl groups were also observed at the peak of 1460 cm−1; in lower intensity, the peaks of the C-H structural groups were observed at 1987 cm−1 and the peak at 721 cm−1 to the vibration mode called “rocking” [43,44]. This research carried out a topographic study of the plastic samples in their initial and final state, using the fungus Trichoderma sp. as the only degrading agent; see Figure 6. The initial plastic sheet (Figure 6a) shows a smooth surface, without imperfections, with a thickness of 756.87 µm, in comparison with Figure 6, which shows formations of microplastics and fragments of the plastic sheet used as a sample and a decrease in thickness of 446.01 µm. The formation of cavities and holes indicates the activity of the fungus Trichoderma sp.; the micro sheet created has an approximate size of 5 µm, and the micro holes have an approximate diameter of 1.3 µm.

4. Discussion

In Figure 2a, the successive increases in voltage values are due to the possible differential that is formed between the electrodes, which is caused by the rise in the oxidation rate of the substrate used over time that was catalyzed by the Trichoderma fungus, while by decreasing the oxidation processes, the voltage values also showed a decrease [45,46]. In comparison with what the literature found, for example, Ahmad A. (2023) mentioned in his research that the increase in voltage values was due to the ease of oxidizing the organic material used as a substrate because this ease and speed directly influence the generation of voltage [47]. Yaqoob et al. (2020) used potato waste as substrates in their MFCs, reporting electrical potential values of 112 mV, where they observed the same phenomenon as in our research in the last days of monitoring, mentioning that the observed decrease is because the microorganisms are ending their life cycle due to the scarcity of organic matter [48]. Figure 2b demonstrates that fermentation of the organic substrates used generates particulate organic matter that is used by the microorganisms (Trichoderma fungus) present, thus promoting their metabolism, in the process of which electrons were released that were captured by the electrodes. [49,50]. The decrease in electric current values is due to the life span of the Trichoderma fungus present in the substrate [51]. Compared with other researchers, Sukri et al. (2021) managed to show a maximum electrical current of 1.4 mA using Oil palm empty fruit bunch as a substrate and white-rot fungus strain, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, as a biocatalyst, reporting that electrochemical systems, such as MFCs, must be autonomous, for which pumping systems must be incorporated to recirculate the waste used and thus obtain optimal performance of the MFCs [52]. Laily et al. (2024) used a set of fungi (Aspergillus aculeatus, Aspergillus oryzae, and Candida rugosa) in their MFCs as biocatalysts in their substrate (fungi—Aspergillus aculeatus, Aspergillus oryzae and Candida rugosa) in their substrate (food waste) enriched with glucose, reported a maximum electrical current of 51.2 mA, mentioning that this high current value is due to the micronutrient added to the substrate [53].
The pH values shown in Figure 3a demonstrate that the progressive increase in pH values is primarily due to the fermentation and metabolic processes of the Trichoderma fungus. Other researchers have reported that fungi, when oxidizing organic matter, induce pH changes in the substrate. In the oxidation process, they produce extracellular oxidative enzymes using molecular oxygen as an electron acceptor and can oxidize non-phenolic compounds [54,55,56]. The initial conductivity values observed in Figure 3b could be attributed to the substantial organic matter present in the substrate. This resulted in a high concentration of carbon sources, which microorganisms utilized for their metabolism and electron generation. The decrease in conductivity values may be due to reduced organic matter [57]. Guo et al. (2021) mention that the electrical conductivity values represent 60% of the total internal resistance of the MFC because the low ionic strength is a limitation for the transport of ions [58]. In Figure 3 the reduction in the COD values is a direct result of the functioning of the MFCs. The Trichoderma fungus uses the carbon sources present to carry out its metabolism, and the MFCs play a crucial role in this process. The COD values and electricity generation in MFCs have been demonstrated, which is why the COD values observed in recent days are compatible with the decrease in electric current values observed simultaneously. Likewise, the production of electrons increased and, therefore, the values of the electric current decreased COD values [59,60]. The dual-chamber MFCs can obtain better COD reduction results because the cathode is not exposed to O2, but single-chamber MFCs are more cost-effective in the long term [61,62].
The power density values shown on day 23 of Figure 4a are due to the excellent ion conductivity, and the constant pH variations due to substrate fermentation harm power density values if they are very high [63]. The pH values that the anodic and cathodic chambers can display will depend on the substrate used because it is responsible for the electron donor and the flow of electrons that pass through the membrane, which directly influences the performance of the density of the electron’s power [64,65]. It has been reported that increasing the acidity values of the substrate in the anodic chamber increases the driving force in cathodic O2 reduction by approximately 59 mV/pH [66]. Yaqoob et al. (2024) used food waste as a substrate in their MFC, reporting a PD of 41.58 mW/m2 in a CD of 334.21 mA/m2, mentioning that placing an external resistance with a high value tends better to stabilize the potential of the MFC [67]. Likewise, Choudhury et al. (2021) used dairy wastewater in their MFC. They generated a PD of 50 mW/m2 and 141 mA/m of CD, mentioning that these values may be due to the high content of organic matter present in the substrate [68]. Regarding the resistance value obtained in Figure 4b, the literature has shown that when there is a decrease in organic matter rich in nutrients that serve for metabolism, they cause metabolic restrictions, which generate high values of the internal resistance of an MFC. Chemical compounds capable of sustaining microbial metabolism help reduce the internal resistance of MFCs [69,70]. The variation in internal resistance hinders electrical energy generation from transferring extracellular electrons [71]. Kaur et al. (2021) demonstrated that the conductivity and ionic/electronic biocompatibility of the material used as an anode electrode are vital for correct electron transfer [72].
The peaks of the FTIR spectrum in Figure 5 decrease between the initial and final value, which we can intuit a decrease in the plastic components due to the degrading action of the fungus Trichoderma sp. because it was the only component capable of degrading this material in the MFC. The observed FTIR results of this research are similar to those obtained by Malachová et al. (2020), who observed a decrease in the intensities of the FTIR spectrum using Trichoderma hamatum in the degradation of plastic for 60 days, reporting that this is due to the ability of the fungus Trichoderma hamatum to assimilate low molecular weight oligomers, leading to the decrease in said oligomers on the surface of the plastic film used as a sample [73]. The literature observed that Trichoderma fungi have managed to degrade plastic samples by 40%, which was achieved due to the oxidizing agents that attacked the shortest segments of the polyethylene chain [74]. Likewise, Parit et al. (2023), in their research, mention that in a wide variety of microorganisms (such as fungi), plastic degradation originates mainly from polymer oxidation indicated by the emergence of ester carbonyl and keto carbonyl groups [75]. In Figure 6, the reduction in thickness and the formation of these geometries evidence the role of fungal enzymes in the depolymerization process. Although the use of microorganisms in microbial fuel cells capable of generating electrical energy, reducing organic matter, and reducing plastic does not exist in the literature, the use of fungi in isolation has been reported [76]. Microbial fuel cells have several advantages over those conventionally used for plastic degradation. MFCs can reduce plastic, generate electricity, and reduce contaminated water or soil simultaneously [26]. This novel way of carrying out this entire process simultaneously is the main advantage of this method because it is an environmentally sustainable process and can be easily scaled and applied in remote places that are difficult to access due to its easy installation [38,39,41]. However, several factors of MFCs still need to be advanced to overcome the existing limitations [16]. These limitations are challenging, including the need for more cost-effective and efficient anodic and cathodic electrodes [23]. The electrodes are key to the acquisition of the electrons generated in the substrates, and the high conductivity of an electrode is instrumental in improving its efficiency [18].

5. Conclusions

The research produced significant results in terms of electrical current, chemical oxygen demand (COD) reduction, and plastic reduction using single-chamber microbial fuel cells. Potato waste and the fungus Trichoderma sp. were used as the substrate. The highest values for the electrical parameters were observed on day 23, with the microbial fuel cells showing a voltage and electrical current of 0.479 ± 0.025 V and 5.648 ± 0.093 mA, respectively. The electrical conductivity was measured at 155.135 ± 2.569 mS/cm, and the pH was 7.046 ± 0.314. Additionally, a reduction in COD from 1525.25 ± 5.62 mg/L to 325.65 ± 36.51 mg/L was observed, representing a 78.67% reduction over the 45 days of operation. The internal resistance was calculated to be 23.647 ± 1.514 Ω, with a power density of 68.140 ± 2.418 mW/cm2 at a current density of 4.719 mA/cm2. Furthermore, FTIR transmittance spectra indicated decreased intensities of peaks related to C=C bonds, hydroxyl groups, methyl groups, and C-H structural groups. Finally, SEM micrographs showed the formation of lamellar structures and voids in the plastic sheets used as substrates, demonstrating the degrading activity of the fungus Trichoderma sp. in the microbial fuel cells.
For future work, metallic nanoparticle catalysts are recommended to improve the electrical conductivity of electrons, and another variety of fungi is recommended to observe each one’s potential to obtain the best. In addition, the optimal pH value of this research can be used to standardize it and achieve better performance of the microbial fuel cells. This standardization of the pH value can be carried out using chemical compounds that do not influence the degradation of the plastic samples.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, R.-F.S.; methodology, C.-C.L.; validation, C.-C.L. and L.M.A.S.; formal analysis, R.-F.S.; investigation, R.-F.S.; data curation, R.-F.S.; writing—original draft preparation, L.M.A.S. and C.-C.L.; writing—review and editing, R.-F.S.; project administration, P.-C.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research has been financed by the Universidad Cesar Vallejo, project code No. P-2023-113.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Schematic design of the single-chamber MFC.
Figure 1. Schematic design of the single-chamber MFC.
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Figure 2. Monitoring values of (a) voltage and (b) electric current of microbial fuel cells.
Figure 2. Monitoring values of (a) voltage and (b) electric current of microbial fuel cells.
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Figure 3. Monitoring of (a) pH, (b) conductivity, and (c) COD values of microbial fuel cells.
Figure 3. Monitoring of (a) pH, (b) conductivity, and (c) COD values of microbial fuel cells.
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Figure 4. Values of (a) power density as a function of current density and (b) internal resistance.
Figure 4. Values of (a) power density as a function of current density and (b) internal resistance.
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Figure 5. FTIR spectrum of the plastic samples in initial and final states.
Figure 5. FTIR spectrum of the plastic samples in initial and final states.
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Figure 6. Micrographs of the plastic samples in their (a) initial and (b) final state after 545 days.
Figure 6. Micrographs of the plastic samples in their (a) initial and (b) final state after 545 days.
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Segundo, R.-F.; Rocío, P.-C.; Luis, C.-C.; Angelats Silva, L.M. Potential Use of the Fungus Trichoderma sp. as a Plastic-Reducing Agent and Electricity Generator in Microbial Fuel Cells. Processes 2024, 12, 2904. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12122904

AMA Style

Segundo R-F, Rocío P-C, Luis C-C, Angelats Silva LM. Potential Use of the Fungus Trichoderma sp. as a Plastic-Reducing Agent and Electricity Generator in Microbial Fuel Cells. Processes. 2024; 12(12):2904. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12122904

Chicago/Turabian Style

Segundo, Rojas-Flores, Pimentel-Castillo Rocío, Cabanillas-Chirinos Luis, and Luis M. Angelats Silva. 2024. "Potential Use of the Fungus Trichoderma sp. as a Plastic-Reducing Agent and Electricity Generator in Microbial Fuel Cells" Processes 12, no. 12: 2904. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12122904

APA Style

Segundo, R.-F., Rocío, P.-C., Luis, C.-C., & Angelats Silva, L. M. (2024). Potential Use of the Fungus Trichoderma sp. as a Plastic-Reducing Agent and Electricity Generator in Microbial Fuel Cells. Processes, 12(12), 2904. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12122904

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