Assessing the Need and Demand for a Community Emergency Paramedic Strategy in the Ambulance Rescue System of Hamburg, Germany
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. The Ambulance Rescue System in the City of Hamburg, Germany
1.2. The General Potential of CEP Systems
1.3. The Potential of a CEP System for the City of Hamburg, Germany
- Can a station-level analysis for the 17 major rescue stations identify areas with the greatest potential for non-time-critical CEP interventions?
- Which time-of-day or seasonal factors significantly influence non-critical call patterns?
- How could these insights inform policymakers about resource allocation?
- Does an uneven distribution of call volume (high-demand vs. low-demand areas) require tailored CEP strategies, especially at peak times?
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Purpose of the Case Study
2.2. Data of the Case Study
2.3. Statistical and Policy Analyses Performed
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Analysis Including Statistical Tests, Clustering Methods and Regression Models
3.1.1. Area and Station Effects
3.1.2. Weekly Effects
3.1.3. Weekday Effects
3.1.4. Time of the Day Effects
3.1.5. Time Series Effects
Overview of the Prophet Model
- g(t), trend: To capture any trend effects, the Prophet model uses a piecewise linear specification that accommodates “changepoints” (dates when the slope changes), thus capturing gradual or abrupt shifts in call volume over the year. For the most part, there is no long-term increase or decrease in call volume. The trend is slightly positive, but that is due to the increase in end-of-year seasonality and is therefore non-informative.
- s(t), seasonality: To capture the multiple seasonalities needed for this analysis, the Prophet model utilizes Fourier series. Each series reflects a different cycle: daily (24 h), weekly, monthly and yearly.
- h(t), holiday or event effects: Known holidays, major events and school breaks were entered as time-limited regressors. This allows the Prophet model to estimate specific localized changes in call volumes.
- t, residual error.
Fourier Decomposition of Seasonalities
Bayesian Estimation and Posterior Credible Intervals
(Time Series) Cross-Validation
- Train on data up to a cut-off date.
- Forecast the next horizon (e.g., 14 or 30 days).
- Compare predictions to actual values using the RMSE (root mean squared error).
- Roll the cut-off forward and repeat.
Summary of the Area- and Time-Related Effects Found
- Yearly Seasonality: Informative and “significant” for all data subsets (normal days, holidays, events, school breaks). All 95% posterior credible intervals show an effect different from 0 and including them gives a much better performance when using cross-validation compared to the alternative model (one without). This shows a robust yearly pattern, with higher volumes typically around the semester break, mid-summer and pre-Christmas.
- Monthly Seasonality: Not informative under any treatment. The posterior intervals included zero, offering no consistent monthly effect. Including a monthly effect did not increase the model’s performance in terms of RMSE.
- Weekly Seasonality: Informative only when we explicitly model weeks with holidays. For normal days, breaks and event weeks, the weekly pattern was non-informative (credible intervals included zero, and the performance did not increase when doing CV).
- Daily Seasonality (24 h cycle): Informative across all categories, showing a pronounced morning-to-afternoon peak and lower overnight volumes. When comparing different treatments, the main difference among holidays, events and breaks compared to normal days is that the trend is slightly shifted left or right, which indicates an on average earlier or later start of day. The overall shape of the trend, however, remains the same.
3.2. Allocation Strategies for the Community Emergency Paramedics Concept in the City of Hamburg
3.2.1. CEP Strategy #1
3.2.2. CEP Strategy #2
3.2.3. CEP Strategy #3
- Group #1: Stations Süderelbe and Finkenwerder (South area):
- one shared CEP for 24 h between these stations [a, b]
- Group #2: Stations Harburg, Veddel and Wilhelmsburg (South area):
- one shared CEP for 24 h among these stations [a, b]
- Group #3: Stations Billstedt and Bergedorf (East area):
- one shared CEP for 24 h between these stations [a, b]
- Group #4: Stations Innenstadt and Berliner Tor (East area):
- one shared CEP for 24 h between these stations [a, b]
- Group #5: Stations Altona and Osdorf (West area):
- one shared CEP for 24 h between these stations [a, b]
- Group #6: Station Rotherbaum (East area):
- one CEP for 24 h for this station alone
- Group #7: Stations Stellingen and Alsterdorf (West area):
- one shared CEP for 24 h between these stations [a, b]
- one second shared CEP from 7.00–19.00 between these stations [b]
- Groups #8, #9, and #10: Station Barmbek, Sasel and Wandsbek (East area):
- one CEP for 24 h for each of the groups [a, b]
- one second non-shared CEP from 7.00–19.00 for each of the groups [b]
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | Type | Number [Range] |
---|---|---|
Stations | Categorial | 17 [1 = Altona,…, 17 = Wandsbek] |
Months | Ordinal | 12 [1 = January,…, 12 = December] |
Weeks | Ordinal | 52 [1…52] |
Day of the Year | Numeric [Time Series] | 365 [t0 = 1 January, …, t364 = 31 December] |
Days of the Week | Ordinal | 1 [1 = Monday,…, 7 = Saturday] |
Hours of the Day | Ordinal | 24 [1 = “0.00–0.59”,…, 24 = “23.00–23.59”] |
Breaks | Binary | [1 = true, 0 = false] |
Events | Binary | [1 = true, 0 = false] |
Holidays | Binary | [1 = true, 0 = false] |
Station | Abbrevation Station | Area | Population Size | Area Size in km2 | Population Density Per km2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Altona | Alo | West | 70,791 | 11.42 | 6199.41 |
Alsterdorf | Als | West | 152,952 | 41.88 | 3652.06 |
Barmbek | Bar | East | 170,752 | 25.265 | 6761.12 |
Bergedorf | Beg | East | 114,212 | 129.25 | 883.68 |
Berliner Tor | Bet | East | 78,123 | 13.37 | 5841.85 |
Billstedt | Bil | East | 56,125 | 57.38 | 978.19 |
Finkenwerder | Fin | South | 12,846 | 56.18 | 228.64 |
Harburg | Har | South | 109,213 | 47.08 | 2319.73 |
Innenstadt | Inn | West | 21,607 | 6.87 | 3145.58 |
Osdorf | Osd | West | 204,793 | 57.69 | 3550.01 |
Rotherbaum | Rot | West | 109,294 | 11.01 | 9928.60 |
Sasel | Sas | East | 169,192 | 86.42 | 1957.72 |
Stellingen | Ste | West | 272,006 | 49.08 | 5542.67 |
Süderelbe | Sue | South | 58,611 | 59.26 | 989.07 |
Veddel | Ved | South | 22,271 | 24.72 | 901.11 |
Wandsbek | Wan | East | 123,594 | 45.39 | 2722.76 |
Wilhelmsburg | Wil | South | 51,689 | 26.60 | 1942.90 |
Average in East Area | East | 51,689 | 47.08 | 1276.29 | |
Average in South Area | South | 118,666 | 59.51 | 3190.87 | |
Average in West Area | West | 138,574 | 29.66 | 5336.39 | |
Average per Station | 105,769 | 44.05 | 3385.00 | ||
Hamburg Area (Total) | 1,798,071 | 748.85 | 2401.10 |
Station | Area | Number of Non-Time-Critical Operations | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total Number | With Transportation to Hospital | Without Transportation to Hospital | ||||
Number | % | Number | % | |||
Altona | West | 3877 | 3322 | 85.68% | 555 | 16.71% |
Alsterdorf | West | 2168 | 1752 | 80.81% | 416 | 23.74% |
Barmbek | East | 4749 | 3927 | 82.69% | 822 | 20.93% |
Bergedorf | East | 3426 | 2699 | 78.78% | 727 | 26.94% |
Berliner Tor | East | 2823 | 2369 | 83.92% | 454 | 19.16% |
Billstedt | East | 1973 | 1519 | 76.99% | 454 | 29.89% |
Finkenwerder | South | 383 | 314 | 81.98% | 69 | 21.97% |
Harburg | South | 2431 | 2076 | 85.40% | 355 | 17.10% |
Innenstadt | West | 2541 | 2205 | 86.78% | 336 | 15.24% |
Osdorf | West | 2982 | 2557 | 85.75% | 425 | 16.62% |
Rotherbaum | West | 2086 | 1784 | 85.52% | 302 | 16.93% |
Sasel | East | 4842 | 4203 | 86.80% | 639 | 15.20% |
Stellingen | West | 4494 | 3674 | 81.75% | 820 | 22.32% |
Süderelbe | South | 1959 | 1669 | 85.20% | 290 | 17.38% |
Veddel | South | 1063 | 910 | 85.61% | 153 | 16.81% |
Wandsbek | East | 4883 | 3967 | 81.24% | 916 | 23.09% |
Wilhelmsburg | South | 1355 | 1140 | 84.13% | 215 | 18.86% |
Average per Station | 2825.59 | 2358.06 | 83.47% | 467.53 | 19.93% | |
Average in East Area | 22,696 | 18,684 | 82.32% | 4012 | 17.68% | |
Average in South Area | 7191 | 6109 | 84.95% | 1082 | 15.05% | |
Average in West Area | 18,148 | 15,294 | 84.27% | 2854 | 15.73% | |
Total | 292,856 (100%) | 48,035 (16.40%) | 40,087 (13.68%) | 100% | 7948 (2.71%) | 100% |
Weekday | Number of Non-Time-Critical Operations | Percentage of Non-Time-Critical Operations |
---|---|---|
Monday | 7125 | 14.83% |
Tuesday | 6959 | 14.49% |
Wednesday | 6599 | 13.74% |
Thursday | 6833 | 14.23% |
Friday | 6812 | 14.18% |
Saturday | 6973 | 14.52% |
Sunday | 6734 | 14.02% |
Average per day | 6862.14 | 14.29% |
Total | 48.035 | 100.00% |
Hourly Time Slot | Average Rate of Non-Time-Critical Operations | Operation Time (in Minutes) | Average Demand (in Minutes) | Number of Community Paramedics | Supply (in Minutes) | Average Workload [Demand/Supply] (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
00.00–00.59 | 0.3534 | 60 | 21.21 | 1 | 60 | 35.34% |
01.00–01.59 | 0.3370 | 60 | 20.21 | 1 | 60 | 33.70% |
02.00–02.59 | 0.3233 | 60 | 19.40 | 1 | 60 | 32.33% |
03.00–03.59 | 0.2301 | 60 | 13.81 | 1 | 60 | 23.01% |
04.00–04.59 | 0.2767 | 60 | 16.60 | 1 | 60 | 27.67% |
05.00–05.59 | 0.2356 | 60 | 14.14 | 1 | 60 | 23.56% |
06.00–06.59 | 0.3452 | 60 | 20.71 | 1 | 60 | 34.52% |
07.00–07.59 | 0.4740 | 60 | 28.44 | 1 | 60 | 47.40% |
08.00–08.59 | 0.6548 | 60 | 39.29 | 1 | 60 | 65.48% |
09.00–09.59 | 0.7562 | 60 | 45.37 | 1 | 60 | 75.62% |
10.00–10.59 | 0.8877 | 60 | 53.26 | 1 | 60 | 88.77% (*) |
11.00–11.59 | 0.8301 | 60 | 49.81 | 1 | 60 | 83.01% |
12.00–12.59 | 0.7616 | 60 | 45.70 | 1 | 60 | 76.16% |
13.00–13.59 | 0.7397 | 60 | 44.38 | 1 | 60 | 73.97% |
14.00–14.59 | 0.7178 | 60 | 43.07 | 1 | 60 | 71.78% |
15.00–15.59 | 0.6110 | 60 | 36.66 | 1 | 60 | 61.10% |
16.00–16.59 | 0.7699 | 60 | 46.19 | 1 | 60 | 76.99% |
17.00–17.59 | 0.7178 | 60 | 43.07 | 1 | 60 | 71.78% |
18.00–18.59 | 0.6247 | 60 | 37.48 | 1 | 60 | 62.47% |
19.00–19.59 | 0.6575 | 60 | 39.45 | 1 | 60 | 65.75% |
20.00–20.59 | 0.5945 | 60 | 35.67 | 1 | 60 | 59.45% |
21.00–21.59 | 0.5534 | 60 | 33.21 | 1 | 60 | 55.34% |
22.00–22.59 | 0.4466 | 60 | 26.80 | 1 | 60 | 44.66% |
23.00–23.59 | 0.4685 | 60 | 28.11 | 1 | 60 | 46.85% |
Total | 0.5569 (average) | 1400 (sum) | 1 | 1440 (sum) | 55.70% (average) |
Station | Average Hourly Workload Strategy #1 in 2019 | Feasibility 2019 | Feasibility 2021 |
---|---|---|---|
Altona [b] | 44.26% | sufficient | sufficient |
Alsterdorf [a] | 24.75% | sufficient | sufficient |
Barmbek [b, c] | 54.19% | sufficient | 6 time slots over 85% and 1 time slot over 100% |
Bergedorf [b] | 39.09% | sufficient | sufficient |
Berliner Tor [a] | 32.23% | sufficient | sufficient |
Billstedt [a] | 22.51% | sufficient | sufficient |
Finkenwerder [a] | 4.37% | sufficient | sufficient |
Harburg [a] | 27.73% | sufficient | sufficient |
Innenstadt [a] | 28.98% | sufficient | sufficient |
Osdorf [a] | 34.03% | sufficient | sufficient |
Rotherbaum [a] | 23.79% | sufficient | sufficient |
Sasel [b, c] | 55.26% | 1 time slot over 85% | 1 time slot over 85% and 3 time slots over 100% |
Stellingen [b, c] | 51.27% | sufficient | 3 time slots over 85% |
Süderelbe [a] | 22.35% | sufficient | sufficient |
Veddel [a] | 12.13% | sufficient | sufficient |
Wandsbek [b, c] * | 55.70% | 1 time slot over 85% | 6 time slots over 85% and 2 time slots over 100% |
Wilhelmsburg [b, c] | 15.47% | sufficient | sufficient |
Groups | Average Hourly Workload Strategy #3 [a] (Feasibility in 2019 and 2021) | Average Hourly Workload Strategy #3 [b] (Feasibility in 2019 and 2021) |
---|---|---|
(1) Süderelbe and Finkenwerder | 26.72% | - |
(2) Harburg, Veddel and Wilhelmsburg | 55.33% (2019: 1 > 85%; 2021: 3 > 85%, 1 > 100%) | 38.08% |
(3) Billstedt and Bergedorf | 61.60% (2021: 8 > 85%; 2 > 100%) | 40.45% (2021: 1 > 85%) |
(4) Innenstadt and Berliner Tor | 61.21% (2021: 10 > 85%) | 43.83% (2021: 1 > 85%) |
(5) Altona and Osdorf | 78.29% (2019: 10 > 85%, 2 > 100%; 2021: 3 > 85%, 13 > 100%) | 55.09% (2019: 1 > 85; 2021: 3 >85%; 2 > 100%) |
(6) Rotherbaum | 23.79% | - |
(7) Stellingen and Alsterdorf | 76.02% (2019: 11 > 85%; 2021: 3 > 85%,12 > 100;) | 52.08% (2019: 1; 2021: 2 > 85%; 1 > 100%) |
(8) Barmbek | 54.19% (2021: 6 > 85%; 1 > 100%) | 36.55% |
(9) Sasel | 55.26% (2019: 1 > 85%; 2021: 3 > 85%; 3 > 100%) | 37.28% |
(10) Wandsbek | 55.70% (2019: 1 > 85%; 2021: 6 > 85%; 2 > 100%) | 37.89% |
CEP Strategy | Number of 24 h Community Paramedics (Area Coverage Rate) | Number of 12 h Community Paramedics | Number of Staff Hours Per Day | Number of Staff Hours Per Year * | Feasibility in 2021 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Strategy #1 [a]: one 24 h CEP for each station | 17 (100%) | 0 | 408 | 148,920 | four high-demand stations |
Strategy #1 [b]: one 24 h CEP for the six higher-demand stations | 6 (35.3%) | 0 | 144 | 52,560 | four high-demand stations |
Strategy #1 [c]: one 24 h CEP for the four high-demand stations | 4 (23.5%) | 0 | 96 | 35,040 | four high-demand stations |
Strategy #2 [a]: one 24 h CEP for each station and a second 12 h one for four higher-demand stations | 17 (100%) | 4 | 456 | 166,440 | |
Strategy #2 [b]: one 24 h CEP for six higher-demand stations and a second 12 h one for the four high-demand stations | 6 (35.3%) | 4 | 192 | 70,080 | |
Strategy #2 [c]: one 24 h CEP for four high-demand stations and a second 12 h one for the four high-demand stations | 4 (23.5%) | 4 | 144 | 52,560 | |
Strategy #3 [a]: one shared 24 h CEP for each group (ten groups including 17 stations) | 10 (100%) | 0 | 240 | 87,600 | high feasibility for eight groups |
Strategy #3[b]: one shared 24 h CEP for each group and a second 12 h one for the eight higher-demand groups (ten groups including 17 stations) | 10 (100%) | 8 | 336 | 122,640 | Slight feasibility for two groups and intermediate feasibility for two groups |
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Rauner, M.S.; Swyter, B.; Velev, S. Assessing the Need and Demand for a Community Emergency Paramedic Strategy in the Ambulance Rescue System of Hamburg, Germany. Healthcare 2025, 13, 979. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13090979
Rauner MS, Swyter B, Velev S. Assessing the Need and Demand for a Community Emergency Paramedic Strategy in the Ambulance Rescue System of Hamburg, Germany. Healthcare. 2025; 13(9):979. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13090979
Chicago/Turabian StyleRauner, Marion Sabine, Benjamin Swyter, and Stefan Velev. 2025. "Assessing the Need and Demand for a Community Emergency Paramedic Strategy in the Ambulance Rescue System of Hamburg, Germany" Healthcare 13, no. 9: 979. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13090979
APA StyleRauner, M. S., Swyter, B., & Velev, S. (2025). Assessing the Need and Demand for a Community Emergency Paramedic Strategy in the Ambulance Rescue System of Hamburg, Germany. Healthcare, 13(9), 979. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13090979