Association Between Income and Well-Being Among Working Women in Japan
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Questionnaire
2.2. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Household Annual Income | ||||||||||
<2 M | 2–4 M | 4–6 M | 6–8 M | 8–10 M | 10–12 M | 12–14 M | 14 M> | Total | p-value | |
N (%) | 1103 (11.03) | 2430 (24.30) | 2356 (23.56) | 1741 (17.41) | 1159 (11.59) | 586 (5.86) | 247 (2.47) | 378 (3.78) | 10,000 | |
Age group (%) | <0.001 | |||||||||
20s | 163 (14.78) | 518 (21.32) | 397 (16.85) | 297 (17.06) | 184 (15.88) | 88 (15.02) | 25 (10.12) | 42 (11.11) | 1714 (17.14) | |
30s | 223 (20.22) | 443 (18.23) | 509 (21.60) | 370 (21.25) | 243 (20.97) | 116 (19.80) | 55 (22.27) | 55 (14.55) | 2014 (20.14) | |
40s | 257 (23.30) | 582 (23.95) | 640 (27.16) | 483 (27.74) | 331 (28.56) | 180 (30.72) | 79 (31.98) | 124 (32.80) | 2676 (26.76) | |
50s | 355 (32.18) | 694 (28.56) | 621 (26.36) | 485 (27.86) | 343 (29.59) | 177 (30.20) | 73 (29.55) | 129 (34.13) | 2877 (28.77) | |
60s and above | 105 (9.52) | 193 (7.94) | 189 (8.02) | 106 (6.09) | 58 (5.00) | 25 (4.27) | 15 (6.07) | 28 (7.41) | 719 (7.19) | |
Occupation (%) | <0.001 | |||||||||
Full-time job | 487 (44.15) | 1576 (64.86) | 1379 (58.53) | 1134 (65.13) | 829 (71.53) | 461 (78.67) | 194 (78.54) | 315 (83.33) | 6375 (63.75) | |
Part-time job | 616 (55.85) | 854 (35.14) | 977 (41.47) | 607 (34.87) | 330 (28.47) | 125 (21.33) | 53 (21.46) | 63 (16.67) | 3625 (36.25) | |
Final academic background (%) | <0.001 | |||||||||
Junior high graduate | 46 (4.17) | 45 (1.85) | 35 (1.49) | 13 (0.75) | 6 (0.52) | 3 (0.51) | 1 (0.40) | 1 (0.26) | 150 (1.50) | |
Senior high graduate | 431 (39.08) | 851 (35.02) | 620 (26.32) | 431 (24.76) | 213 (18.38) | 91 (15.53) | 32 (12.96) | 39 (10.32) | 2708 (27.08) | |
College graduate | 159 (14.42) | 371 (15.27) | 411 (17.44) | 277 (15.91) | 179 (15.44) | 90 (15.36) | 35 (14.17) | 49 (12.96) | 1571 (15.71) | |
Vocational school | 194 (17.59) | 463 (19.05) | 420 (17.83) | 312 (17.92) | 197 (17.00) | 70 (11.95) | 28 (11.34) | 22 (5.82) | 1706 (17.06) | |
University undergraduate | 255 (23.12) | 670 (27.57) | 818 (34.72) | 666 (38.25) | 527 (45.47) | 299 (51.02) | 127 (51.42) | 212 (56.08) | 3574 (35.74) | |
Graduate school | 18 (1.63) | 30 (1.23) | 52 (2.21) | 42 (2.41) | 37 (3.19) | 33 (5.63) | 24 (9.72) | 55 (14.55) | 291 (2.91) | |
Spouse (%) | <0.001 | |||||||||
Yes | 273 (24.75) | 792 (32.59) | 1394 (59.17) | 1269 (72.89) | 879 (75.84) | 448 (76.45) | 201 (81.38) | 290 (76.72) | 5546 (55.46) | |
No | 830 (75.25) | 1638 (67.41) | 962 (40.83) | 472 (27.11) | 280 (24.16) | 138 (23.55) | 46 (18.62) | 88 (23.28) | 4454 (44.54) | |
Number of children (%) | <0.001 | |||||||||
0 | 795 (72.08) | 1741 (71.65) | 1309 (55.56) | 816 (46.87) | 484 (41.76) | 241 (41.13) | 86 (34.82) | 166 (43.92) | 5638 (56.38) | |
1 | 179 (16.23) | 389 (16.01) | 516 (21.90) | 452 (25.96) | 323 (27.87) | 156 (26.62) | 65 (26.32) | 86 (22.75) | 2166 (21.66) | |
2 | 89 (8.07) | 221 (9.09) | 405 (17.19) | 364 (20.91) | 269 (23.21) | 139 (23.72) | 69 (27.94) | 93 (24.60) | 1649 (16.49) | |
3 | 35 (3.17) | 62 (2.55) | 107 (4.54) | 99 (5.69) | 64 (5.52) | 44 (7.51) | 21 (8.50) | 25 (6.61) | 457 (4.57) | |
4 | 4 (0.36) | 13 (0.53) | 17 (0.72) | 10 (0.57) | 12 (1.04) | 5 (0.85) | 4 (1.62) | 2 (0.53) | 67 (0.67) | |
5≤ | 1 (0.09) | 4 (0.16) | 2 (0.08) | 0 (0.00) | 7 (0.60) | 1 (0.17) | 2 (0.81) | 6 (1.59) | 23 (0.23) | |
Number of cohabitants who require care (%) | 0.070 | |||||||||
0 | 1043 (94.56) | 2324 (95.64) | 2241 (95.12) | 1664 (95.58) | 1087 (93.79) | 550 (93.86) | 230 (93.12) | 351 (92.86) | 9490 (94.90) | |
1 | 51 (4.62) | 99 (4.07) | 108 (4.58) | 70 (4.02) | 64 (5.52) | 31 (5.29) | 14 (5.67) | 23 (6.08) | 460 (4.60) | |
2≤ | 9 (0.82) | 7 (0.29) | 7 (0.30) | 7 (0.40) | 8 (0.69) | 5 (0.85) | 3 (1.21) | 4 (1.06) | 50 (0.50) | |
Menstrual problems (%) | <0.001 | |||||||||
No | 827 (74.98) | 1690 (69.55) | 1648 (69.95) | 1233 (70.82) | 851 (73.43) | 443 (75.60) | 197 (79.76) | 289 (76.46) | 7178 (71.78) | |
Yes | 276 (25.02) | 740 (30.45) | 708 (30.05) | 508 (29.18) | 308 (26.57) | 143 (24.40) | 50 (20.24) | 89 (23.54) | 2822 (28.22) | |
Mental health problems/insomnia (%) | <0.001 | |||||||||
No | 805 (72.98) | 1832 (75.39) | 1845 (78.31) | 1411 (81.05) | 959 (82.74) | 482 (82.25) | 208 (84.21) | 316 (83.60) | 7858 (78.58) | |
Yes | 298 (27.02) | 598 (24.61) | 511 (21.69) | 330 (18.95) | 200 (17.26) | 104 (17.75) | 39 (15.79) | 62 (16.40) | 2142 (21.42) | |
Anemia (%) | 0.633 | |||||||||
No | 996 (90.30) | 2162 (88.97) | 2086 (88.54) | 1532 (88.00) | 1035 (89.30) | 528 (90.10) | 222 (89.88) | 336 (88.89) | 8897 (88.97) | |
Yes | 107 (9.70) | 268 (11.03) | 270 (11.46) | 209 (12.00) | 124 (10.70) | 58 (9.90) | 25 (10.12) | 42 (11.11) | 1103 (11.03) | |
Headaches (%) | 0.006 | |||||||||
No | 834 (75.61) | 1800 (74.07) | 1735 (73.64) | 1313 (75.42) | 900 (77.65) | 459 (78.33) | 190 (76.92) | 308 (81.48) | 7539 (75.39) | |
Yes | 269 (24.39) | 630 (25.93) | 621 (26.36) | 428 (24.58) | 259 (22.35) | 127 (21.67) | 57 (23.08) | 70 (18.52) | 2461 (24.61) | |
Gastrointestinal problems (%) | 0.007 | |||||||||
No | 885 (80.24) | 1955 (80.45) | 1898 (80.56) | 1419 (81.5) | 975 (84.12) | 503 (85.84) | 198 (80.16) | 319 (84.39) | 8152 (81.52) | |
Yes | 218 (19.76) | 475 (19.55) | 458 (19.44) | 322 (18.5) | 184 (15.88) | 83 (14.16) | 49 (19.84) | 59 (15.61) | 1848 (18.48) | |
Eating/feeding problems (%) | 0.036 | |||||||||
No | 946 (85.77) | 2061 (84.81) | 2038 (86.5) | 1523 (87.48) | 1019 (87.92) | 516 (88.05) | 215 (87.04) | 340 (89.95) | 8658 (86.58) | |
Yes | 157 (14.23) | 369 (15.19) | 318 (13.50) | 218 (12.52) | 140 (12.08) | 70 (11.95) | 32 (12.96) | 38 (10.05) | 1342 (13.42) |
ONS1: Life Satisfaction | ONS2: Worthwile | ONS3: Happiness | ONS4: Anxiety | ||||||
Coefficients (95% CIs) | p-value | Coefficients (95% CIs) | p-value | Coefficients (95% CIs) | p-value | Coefficients (95% CIs) | p-value | ||
Intercept | 4.97 (4.57, 5.37) | 0.000 | 4.53 (4.14, 4.92) | 0.000 | 4.70 (4.26, 5.13) | 0.000 | 4.10 (3.59, 4.61) | 0.000 | |
Income | 0.22 (0.13, 0.31) | 0.000 | 0.23 (0.15, 0.32) | 0.000 | 0.27 (0.17, 0.37) | 0.000 | −0.02 (−0.14, 0.09) | 0.686 | |
Age group | |||||||||
20s | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | |
30s | −0.35 (−0.71, 0.00) | 0.053 | −0.41 (−0.76, −0.06) | 0.021 | −0.18 (−0.57, 0.21) | 0.362 | 0.39 (−0.07, 0.85) | 0.094 | |
40s | −0.03 (−0.37, 0.31) | 0.865 | 0.00 (−0.34, 0.33) | 0.984 | 0.01 (−0.36, 0.38) | 0.963 | 0.02 (−0.41, 0.46) | 0.916 | |
50s | 0.00 (−0.34, 0.34) | 1.000 | 0.34 (0.00, 0.67) | 0.047 | 0.10 (−0.27, 0.47) | 0.595 | −0.20 (−0.64, 0.23) | 0.359 | |
≥60s | 0.39 (−0.07, 0.86) | 0.099 | 0.89 (0.43, 1.35) | 0.000 | 0.59 (0.07, 1.10) | 0.025 | −0.61 (−1.21, −0.01) | 0.047 | |
Marital status | |||||||||
No | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | |
Yes | 0.48 (0.24, 0.72) | 0.000 | 0.49 (0.25, 0.73) | 0.000 | 0.67 (0.40, 0.94) | 0.000 | −0.40 (−0.71, −0.08) | 0.013 | |
Providing in-home care | |||||||||
No | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | |
Yes | −0.37 (−0.83, 0.10) | 0.125 | −0.06 (−0.52, 0.39) | 0.785 | −0.29 (−0.80, 0.22) | 0.269 | 0.39 (−0.21, 0.99) | 0.206 | |
Number of children | 0.03 (−0.09, 0.16) | 0.599 | 0.21 (0.09, 0.34) | 0.001 | 0.15 (0.01, 0.29) | 0.038 | 0.06 (−0.10, 0.23) | 0.459 | |
Menstrual problems | |||||||||
No | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | |
Yes | 0.22 (−0.06, 0.49) | 0.120 | 0.28 (0.01, 0.54) | 0.041 | 0.18 (−0.12, 0.47) | 0.245 | 0.04 (−0.31, 0.38) | 0.837 | |
Mental health problems/ insomnia | |||||||||
No | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | |
Yes | −1.27 (−1.54, −0.99) | 0.000 | −1.29 (−1.56, −1.03) | 0.000 | −1.51 (−1.81, −1.21) | 0.000 | 1.90 (1.55, 2.26) | 0.000 | |
Anemia | |||||||||
No | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | |
Yes | −0.11 (−0.47, 0.25) | 0.539 | 0.08 (−0.27, 0.44) | 0.638 | 0.16 (−0.24, 0.55) | 0.443 | −0.14 (−0.61, 0.32) | 0.542 | |
Headaches | |||||||||
No | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | |
Yes | −0.21 (−0.47, 0.06) | 0.123 | 0.02 (−0.24, 0.28) | 0.861 | 0.02 (−0.27, 0.32) | 0.867 | 0.07 (−0.27, 0.41) | 0.689 | |
Gastrointestinal problems | |||||||||
No | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | |
Yes | −0.16 (−0.44, 0.13) | 0.283 | −0.29 (−0.57, −0.01) | 0.044 | −0.43 (−0.74, −0.12) | 0.007 | 0.24 (−0.12, 0.61) | 0.194 | |
Eating/feeding problems | |||||||||
No | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | |
Yes | −0.46 (−0.78, −0.15) | 0.004 | −0.29 (−0.60, 0.02) | 0.071 | −0.24 (−0.59, 0.11) | 0.184 | 0.10 (−0.31, 0.51) | 0.624 | |
Income × Age group | |||||||||
Income × 20s | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | |
Income × 30s | 0.09 (−0.01, 0.19) | 0.072 | 0.09 (0.00, 0.19) | 0.058 | −0.01 (−0.12, 0.09) | 0.795 | −0.16 (−0.29, −0.04) | 0.012 | |
Income × 40s | 0.03 (−0.06, 0.12) | 0.511 | 0.03 (−0.06, 0.12) | 0.560 | −0.05 (−0.15, 0.06) | 0.380 | −0.14 (−0.26, −0.02) | 0.021 | |
Income × 50s | 0.06 (−0.04, 0.15) | 0.225 | 0.01 (−0.08, 0.10) | 0.852 | −0.03 (−0.13, 0.07) | 0.566 | −0.12 (−0.24, 0.00) | 0.050 | |
Income × ≥60s | 0.04 (−0.09, 0.17) | 0.527 | −0.04 (−0.16, 0.09) | 0.587 | −0.09 (−0.24, 0.05) | 0.192 | −0.08 (−0.24, 0.09) | 0.369 | |
Income × Marital status | |||||||||
Income × No | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | |
Income × Yes | 0.02 (−0.05, 0.09) | 0.537 | 0.02 (−0.05, 0.08) | 0.563 | 0.02 (−0.05, 0.10) | 0.503 | 0.05 (−0.04, 0.13) | 0.266 | |
Income × Providing in-home care | |||||||||
Income × No | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | |
Income × Yes | −0.19 (−0.31, −0.07) | 0.001 | −0.25 (−0.36, −0.14) | 0.000 | −0.19 (−0.32, −0.07) | 0.003 | 0.02 (−0.12, 0.17) | 0.746 | |
Income × Number of children | −0.02 (−0.05, 0.01) | 0.142 | −0.04 (−0.07, −0.01) | 0.005 | −0.04 (−0.07, −0.01) | 0.024 | 0.00 (−0.03, 0.04) | 0.816 | |
Income × Menstrual problems | |||||||||
Income × No | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | |
Income × Yes | −0.02 (−0.09, 0.05) | 0.581 | −0.05 (−0.12, 0.02) | 0.186 | −0.01 (−0.09, 0.07) | 0.826 | 0.00 (−0.10, 0.09) | 0.917 | |
Income × Mental health problems/insomnia | |||||||||
Income × No | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | |
Income × Yes | 0.06 (−0.02, 0.13) | 0.148 | 0.08 (0.01, 0.16) | 0.027 | 0.08 (0.00, 0.17) | 0.043 | −0.09 (−0.19, 0.00) | 0.059 | |
Income × Anemia | |||||||||
Income × No | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | |
Income × Yes | 0.01 (−0.08, 0.11) | 0.802 | −0.01 (−0.11, 0.08) | 0.777 | −0.02 (−0.13, 0.08) | 0.651 | 0.04 (−0.08, 0.16) | 0.504 | |
Income × Headaches | |||||||||
Income × No | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | |
Income × Yes | 0.03 (−0.04, 0.10) | 0.434 | 0.00 (−0.07, 0.07) | 0.961 | −0.02 (−0.10, 0.06) | 0.569 | −0.02 (−0.11, 0.07) | 0.701 | |
Income × Gastrointestinal problems | |||||||||
Income × No | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | |
Income × Yes | 0.02 (−0.06, 0.10) | 0.614 | 0.05 (−0.02, 0.13) | 0.166 | 0.08 (0.00, 0.16) | 0.062 | −0.03 (−0.13, 0.07) | 0.569 | |
Income × Eating/Feeding problems | |||||||||
Income × No | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | Ref. - | - | |
Income × Yes | 0.06 (−0.03, 0.15) | 0.164 | 0.05 (−0.03, 0.14) | 0.229 | 0.07 (−0.03, 0.16) | 0.156 | −0.01 (−0.12, 0.10) | 0.894 |
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© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Suzuki, T.; Sasayama, K.; Nishimura, E.; Yamaji, N.; Ota, E.; Saito, E.; Yoneoka, D. Association Between Income and Well-Being Among Working Women in Japan. Healthcare 2025, 13, 240. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13030240
Suzuki T, Sasayama K, Nishimura E, Yamaji N, Ota E, Saito E, Yoneoka D. Association Between Income and Well-Being Among Working Women in Japan. Healthcare. 2025; 13(3):240. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13030240
Chicago/Turabian StyleSuzuki, Takao, Kiriko Sasayama, Etsuko Nishimura, Noyuri Yamaji, Erika Ota, Eiko Saito, and Daisuke Yoneoka. 2025. "Association Between Income and Well-Being Among Working Women in Japan" Healthcare 13, no. 3: 240. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13030240
APA StyleSuzuki, T., Sasayama, K., Nishimura, E., Yamaji, N., Ota, E., Saito, E., & Yoneoka, D. (2025). Association Between Income and Well-Being Among Working Women in Japan. Healthcare, 13(3), 240. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13030240