Next Article in Journal
Cold Knife Hysteroscopic Myomectomy: A Literature Review on Its Role as a Fertility Sparing Tool
Previous Article in Journal
Hospital at Home Following Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation: An Economic Analysis
 
 
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

The Mediating Effect of Grit in the Relationship Between Middle School Students’ Trust in Their Physical Education Teachers and Health-Promoting Behaviors: Evidence from Korea

1
Department of Physical Education, College of Fourth, Korea National University of Education, Cheongju 28173, Republic of Korea
2
Department of Sports Medicine, College of Humanities, Korea National University of Transportation, Chungju-si 27469, Republic of Korea
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Healthcare 2025, 13(14), 1650; https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13141650
Submission received: 10 June 2025 / Revised: 4 July 2025 / Accepted: 8 July 2025 / Published: 9 July 2025

Abstract

Objectives/Background: With increasing awareness of the association between physical activity and mental health, promoting youth health has gained prominence. For this, education and support are needed. As psychological school-based factors could be key to affecting this behavior, this study investigates middle school students’ trust in their physical education teachers and their grit, analyzing their effects on health-promoting behaviors that could follow these adolescents through adulthood. Methods: Middle school students, aged 12–14, were recruited from three schools in Sejong City, Korea, in May 2025; 420 survey questionnaires were distributed and 390 were returned (response rate: 92.86%). After eliminating those with insincere responses, 369 valid questionnaires (boys = 186, girls = 183) were analyzed. The analysis covered the descriptive statistics, Pearson’s correlation, and structural equation modeling, with grit, trust in physical education teachers, and health-promoting behaviors as variables. Results: The correlation analysis verified multicollinearity between trust in physical education teachers (closeness, fairness, teaching method, and physical ability), grit (effort, perseverance, and interest consistency), and health-promoting behaviors (self-actualization, health management, and stress management). A positive significant correlation was found between all subfactors (p < 0.05). The research model’s fit was confirmed through several fit indices; specifically, normed χ2 = 4.138, goodness-of-fit-index = 0.942, root mean square residual = 0.033, root mean square error of approximation = 0.092, incremental fit index = 0.965, Tucker–Lewis index = 0.947, and comparative fit index = 0.965, and all values were judged acceptable. The standardized coefficients of each latent variable explaining the measurement variables were 0.707 or higher. Therefore, the explanatory power of the measurement variables was also satisfactory; thus, the research model was appropriate and could be used for analysis. The model findings revealed that trust in physical education teachers had a positive effect on student grit (β = 0.505, p < 0.001) and that grit had a positive effect on health-promoting behaviors (β = 0.743, p < 0.001); however, trust in physical education teachers did not have a direct effect on health-promoting behaviors (statistically insignificant [β = 0.103, p > 0.05]). Thus, grit had a mediating effect between trust in physical education teachers and health-promoting behaviors (β = 0.375, p < 0.01). Conclusions: This study highlights the educational implications for physical education teachers of building trust and strengthening student grit as key factors in achieving sustainable health-promoting behaviors among adolescents.

1. Introduction

Today, both teachers and parents recognize the need for education and support that promotes youth health, as the association between physical activity and mental health is well known; namely, as physical activity decreases, mental health issues increase [1]. In general, increased smartphone usage and greater academic burdens have decreased the time that adolescents spend exercising. This is particularly true in Korea, where health and physical fitness levels have decreased and obesity rates have increased. Moreover, the recent COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated this situation [1]. The increasing rate of stress and depression among adolescents in Korea is also concerning, highlighting the need to focus on their psychological health as well [1]. To ensure adolescents’ physical and mental well-being, continuous and systematic health management practices are needed that go beyond simple exercise participation and promote healthy behaviors.
  • Adolescent health-promoting behaviors
Health-promoting behaviors include activities that are part of a lifestyle that maintains or improves a sense of well-being, self-realization, or achievement [2]. An understanding of healthy behaviors improves the ability to control health determinants and achieve well-being [3]. Adolescent behavior in this regard is critical. The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and others [4] have concluded that developing health-promoting and disease-prevention strategies among adolescents is crucial, as most lifelong health-related habits are formed during this period. Liu et al. [5] reported that unhealthy lifestyles during adolescence were important factors leading to chronic diseases in the future. Moreover, from a psychological perspective, strengthening health-promoting behaviors can help alleviate various types of negative emotions [6]. Physical activity plays an important role in promoting mental health in adolescents and has a positive effect on emotional stability and reducing anxiety, especially through self-esteem [7]. It can also reduce depression and strengthen social bonds [8]. To address these mental issues, peer-led health behavior interventions are attracting attention as effective prevention and intervention strategies [9]. Such interventions also have been used to promote physical activity participation among adolescents [10]. Thus, there are several psychological factors that could influence physical activity and, consequently, adolescent healthy behaviors.
  • The role of physical education teachers
With the increasing awareness of the psychological benefits of physical activity, the role of school physical education has become particularly important. Stellefson et al. [11] argued that health-promoting behaviors can be improved by health education that encourages positive health perceptions among students. In general, school physical education is key to helping adolescents develop balanced physical and mental health. Accordingly, physical education teachers play important roles in supporting students’ holistic growth beyond simple exercises. In addition to challenging students physically, these teachers can contribute to fostering students’ social and emotional stability. Liu et al. [12] reported that feedback from physical education teachers had a positive effect on students’ intention to continue exercising and their participation, mediated by perceived competence and exercise persistence. Viksi and Tilga [13] reported that controlling behavior from physical education (PE) teachers hindered student autonomy, leading to a decrease in participation in physical activities during leisure time.
  • The role of trust
In this context, trust is a key factor in forming, developing, and maintaining the relationship between the student and the PE teacher [14]. Students’ trust in their teachers increases class participation, positive attitudes, and stronger motivation to perform. Sun et al. [15] reported that teacher trust had a positive effect on student learning. Similarly, Sakineh and Ali [16] showed that trust between students and teachers contributed to improving student academic achievement through stronger school interaction and academic motivation. Şirin et al. [17] reported that trust in teachers had a positive effect on class and school participation. Dai [18] argued that positive teacher–student relationships could regulate students’ mental emotions, increase students’ class participation, cultivate students’ learning ability, and promote students’ academic achievement and goals. From the PE perspective, Kim [19] reported that students’ trust in their PE teachers positively affected their intention to continue to exercise. Thus, in this relationship, trust between PE teachers and students positively affected not only attitudes toward physical activities but also students’ health-promoting behaviors.
  • The role of grit
The concept of grit is another factor affecting student success. Grit refers to the ability to persevere until the end of a task without giving up early, despite facing difficulties [20]. Studies have reported an association between grit and academic achievement. For example, Yaure et al. [21] showed that grit could predict the perseverance required to endure physical, mental, and emotional stressors and was positively related to improved academic achievement, which is in line with Allen et al.’s [22] argument. Improving adolescents’ grit may be an important factor in continuous health-promoting behavior as well. Recent studies suggest that grit is closely related not only to academic achievement but also to participation in physical activities and healthy behaviors. Rafiee et al. [23] found that grit had a positive effect on the exercise self-efficacy of athletes. Lee and Hwang [24] reported that the grit of participants in recreational sports affected exercise passion. Gray et al.’s [25] results showed that grit scores among athletes were higher than those among non-athletes, implying that differences in grit may be an important individual characteristic affecting exercise behavior. De La Cruz et al. [26] reported that grit had a positive effect on adults’ readiness to change exercise behavior, particularly through self-efficacy and autonomous motivation. According to Kurita et al. [27], grit was closely related to health-promoting behaviors in general, including physical activity and eating habits, and it was also linked to weight management and the prevention of chronic diseases.
From an adolescent perspective, Liu et al. [28] found that grit suppressed negative behaviors, such as internet addiction in adolescents, and argued that grit could change adolescents’ motivation. Martin et al. [29] reported that grit showed a positive relationship with various health behaviors, such as exercise, sedentary time, and eating habits. Hein et al. [30] reported that grit’s effort persistence led to actual participation in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity through the intention to participate. According to Dai et al. [31], grit was one of the key factors explaining exercise persistence in adolescents, with self-efficacy and self-regulation acting as mediating factors. Given this, grit may be a key factor influencing students’ adoption of health-promoting behaviors.
  • Hypothesis development
Although research on grit is extensive, few studies have examined whether it has a mediating effect on voluntary adolescent behaviors (i.e., health-promoting behaviors). As a mediator, grit could be key to adolescent commitment to physical activity, as well as to health-promoting behaviors. Support from and trust in PE teachers could also be a key factor in strengthening students’ grit, ultimately leading to more voluntary health-promoting behaviors.
To assess the dynamics of these factors, our study looks at middle school students’ trust in PE teachers and their grit to assess the impact of these on health-promoting behaviors, considering grit as a mediator. Thus, we fill a gap in the literature by testing how, through the development of grit as a driver of continuous exercise practice, trust in PE teachers encourages health-promoting behaviors among adolescents. Hence, distinct from previous research, we explore the mediating role of grit in the relationship between PE teacher trust and healthy behaviors. Accordingly, we posited the following hypotheses among middle school students (Figure 1).
H1: 
Trust in their PE teachers influences their grit.
H2: 
Grit influences their health-promoting behaviors.
H3: 
Trust in their PE teachers influences their health-promoting behaviors.
H4: 
Grit has a mediating effect in the relationship between their trust in their PE teachers and their health-promoting behaviors.
We expect our results to provide PE teachers with ways to improve grit and students’ health-promoting behaviors based on trust, clearly presenting a direction for PE going forward.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Design and Procedure

We chose Sejong City in Korea as the setting for our study. This is a new city in Korea with a large concentration of central government agencies. It has a well-established educational infrastructure and a relatively homogeneous educational environment centered on public education. Korea has a nine-year compulsory education system encompassing six years in elementary school and three in middle school. Moreover, relatively uniform nationwide educational content is provided through a national-level curriculum. Since Sejong City is largely a civil servant city, most of the parents would be of similar socio-economic status. As such, we could use non-probability convenience sampling in the city, as the schools’ population characteristics would be relatively homogeneous.
We designed a questionnaire survey that could be distributed to schools in the city, encompassing our study variables (see measures below), and then we analyzed the data through structural equation modeling. To choose the appropriate sample size, we used a Monte Carlo simulation to identify sample requirements for maximum likelihood. The results showed that the minimum sample for maximum likelihood was 200 [32,33,34]. Thus, the sample should be 200 participants or more, if possible. If the sample exceeds 500, maximum likelihood would be too sensitive, and the model fit would be poor [32,33,34]. Therefore, we chose 420 participants as our target sample size.

2.2. Participants

After obtaining permission from the school administrations, we distributed 420 surveys to three middle schools in Sejong City from 9 May 2025 to 31 May 2025. For our screening, we included only students 12 to 15 years of age in middle school. There were no other exclusion criteria. We received 390 returned questionnaires (response rate 92.86%), of which 369 were included in our final analysis; 21 questionnaires were excluded for insincere answers. Students were given a small gift for participating.
The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Korea National University of Education (approval number KNUE-202505-SB-0204-01, approval date 8 May 2025) and conducted according to the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. All participants and their guardians were told the purpose of the study and provided informed written consent.

2.3. Measures

The questions we chose for our survey had been verified for reliability and validity in the literature [35,36,37,38,39,40,41]. We then modified and supplemented these according to our objectives. The initial questions covered students’ demographic characteristics: sex, grade, and exercise frequency. The questions on trust in PE teachers that we used had been developed and validated by Park and Park [35] in the Korean language. We also applied a middle school trust in physical education teachers scale developed and validated by Kim et al. [36] in the Korean language. We then modified and supplemented these.
The subfactors under trust in PE teachers comprised four categories: closeness, fairness, teaching method, and physical ability. These were measured with four items for closeness and three items, respectively, for fairness, teaching method, and physical ability, totaling thirteen items. The questions on grit were modified and supplemented as a validated Korean language grit scale based on Ha et al. [37] (previously validated in Duckworth’s [38] original grit scale). The subfactors under grit consisted of two categories: effort perseverance, measured with eight items, and interest consistency, measured with four items. The questions on health-promoting behavior were taken from Walker et al. [39] and validated in the Korean language in the research [40,41]. The subfactors under health-promoting behaviors consisted of three categories: self-actualization (measured with 10 items), health management (measured with 6 items), and stress management (measured with 5 items). All questions were rated on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from one “not at all” to five “very much”.

2.4. Data Analysis

We conducted several different analyses of the data. First, we assessed trends and normality using descriptive statistics. We then calculated skewness and kurtosis to confirm the assumption of normality. If skewness is ±3.00 or less and kurtosis is ±8.00 or less, the data meet normality [32,33,34]. Second, we conducted confirmatory factor analysis using the maximum likelihood estimation method and calculated Cronbach’s α to verify the validity and reliability of our measurement tool. To ensure its structural validity, each factor was set as a single-factor model, and confirmatory factor analysis was performed individually. Through this, the factor loadings and fit indices between items were examined, and the appropriateness of the measurement structure for each scale was checked in advance before the overall structural model analysis. As a criterion for suitability, normed χ2 is acceptable if it is 3.00 or less at a strict level and 5.00 or less at a lenient level [32,33,34]. The goodness-of-fit-index (GFI) is considered sufficient if it is 0.900 or higher; the root mean square residual (RMR) is considered acceptable if it is 0.050 or lower; the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) is average if it is 0.100 or lower; and the incremental fit index (IFI), the Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), and the comparative fit index (CFI) are acceptable if they are 0.900 or higher [32,33,34]. Cronbach’s α of 0.600 or higher represents appropriate internal consistency. Third, we ran Pearson’s correlation analysis to assess multicollinearity between variables and conducted path analysis of the structural equation model to analyze the relationship between variables. Finally, we ran bootstrapping 2000 times to verify the mediation effect at 95% confidence using a bias correction method. We used SPSS (version 29.0; IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA) and AMOS (version 29.0; IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA) for all of our statistical analyses, with statistical significance set at p < 0.05.

3. Results

3.1. Participant Characteristics

The participant characteristics are shown in Table 1. Our sample was equally representative of boys and girls and the three grades (7th–9th). The age range was from 12 to 15 years old. Approximately one-third of the students exercised three times a week, the highest frequency.

3.2. Descriptive Statistics of Each Variable

The descriptive statistics of the variables are shown in Table 2. The mean of the variables was between 3.259 and 4.178, and the standard deviation was between 0.717 and 0.875. The skewness was between −1.165 and 0.294, and the kurtosis was between −0.251 and 1.962, confirming a normal distribution.

3.3. Confirmatory Factor Analysis

To assure validity, experts in the field (one professor and two doctors specializing in sports education) reviewed the content validity in advance. As stated, we also conducted confirmatory factor analysis using the maximum likelihood estimation method and Cronbach’s α to verify internal consistency and reliability of the items. We found that for trust in PE teachers, the fit indices were χ2 = 145.986, GFI = 0.945, RMR = 0.024, RMSEA = 0.063, IFI = 0.977, TLI = 0.969, and CFI = 0.976. Cronbach’s α was 0.907 for closeness, 0.851 for fairness, 0.884 for teaching method, and 0.850 for physical ability, verifying reliability.
We found that for grit, the fit indices were χ2 = 304.53, GFI = 0.858, RMR = 0.062, RMSEA = 0.114, IFI = 0.915, TLI = 0.894, and CFI = 0.915. Although RMSEA exceeded the goodness-of-fit criterion, the index is not an absolute value. Thus, we interpreted this as an approximate and acceptable value [32,33,34]. Cronbach’s α was 0.916 for effort perseverance and 0.783 for interest consistency, again confirming reliability.
We also found that for health-promoting behavior, the fit indices were χ2 = 503.692, GFI = 0.882, RMR = 0.066, RMSEA = 0.069, IFI = 0.913, TLI = 0.899, and CFI = 0.912, and Cronbach’s α was 0.908 for self-actualization, 0.773 for health management, and 0.811 for stress management, again confirming reliability. The confirmatory factor analysis results are shown in Table 3.

3.4. Correlation Analysis

We conducted a correlation analysis to verify multicollinearity among trust in PE teachers (closeness, fairness, teaching method, and physical ability), grit (effort perseverance and interest consistency), and health-promoting behaviors (self-actualization, health management, and stress management). We found a positive and significant correlation among all subfactors. The subfactors with the highest values were teaching method and fairness (0.775), and those with the lowest were health management and physical ability (0.106). In addition, the results of the correlation showed that all values were less than 0.800, indicating no problem with multicollinearity. The specifics are shown in Table 4.

3.5. Goodness-of-Fit Index and Parameter Estimates

We confirmed our research model’s fit through the fit indices. Specifically, normed χ2 = 4.138, GFI = 0.942, RMR = 0.033, RMSEA = 0.092, IFI = 0.965, TLI = 0.947, and CFI = 0.965. The results of the goodness-of-fit test were judged to be acceptable for all values (see Table 5). In addition, as shown in Table 6, the standardized coefficients of each latent variable explaining the measurement variables were 0.707 or higher. Therefore, the explanatory power of the measurement variables was also satisfactory; thus, the research model was appropriate and could be used for analysis.

3.6. Verification of Causal Relationship

We were able to verify the causal relationships among trust in PE teachers, grit, and health-promoting behaviors. First, in the relationship between trust in PE teachers and grit, the standardized coefficient (β) was 0.505 and the significance (critical ratio) was 8.966, showing statistical significance (p < 0.001). Second, in the relationship between grit and health-promoting behaviors, β was 0.743 and the significance (critical ratio) was 11.701, again statistically significant (p < 0.001). Third, however, in the relationship between trust in PE teachers and health-promoting behaviors, β was 0.103 and the significance (critical ratio) was 1.961; thus, they were statistically insignificant. Ultimately, the indirect effect of trust in PE teachers on health-promoting behavior through grit was statistically significant at 0.375 (p < 0.01). Since trust in physical education teachers did not directly affect health-promoting behaviors, we can discern that grit had a complete mediating effect in the relationship between trust in PE teachers and health-promoting behaviors. The specific results are shown in Table 7 and Table 8 and Figure 2.

4. Discussion

Our study aim was to analyze the effects of middle school students’ trust in their PE teachers on grit and their voluntary health-promoting behaviors; we also aimed to identify whether grit had a mediating effect. First, we found that trust in their PE teachers had a positive effect on their grit, supporting Hypothesis 1. This is consistent with the results in previous studies indicating that teacher trust is a basic element in effective student education [42] and that students’ perceptions of teachers they have an emotional connection with improve grit [43]. This result is also consistent with studies indicating that teachers’ attitudes toward students in high school PE classes have a significant effect on students’ grit [44]. Yoo and Park [45] state that when teachers and students form a positive relationship, it enhances students’ inner capabilities and enables continuous commitment to long-term goals.
The implication is that as PE teachers become closer and appear fairer to students, alongside effective teaching methods, student grit is likely to increase. Additionally, it suggests that when a trusting relationship is formed between PE teachers and students, students are likely to challenge themselves more in physical education class assignments, which can also engender grit. Furthermore, grit had a positive effect on the health-promoting behaviors we measured, supporting Hypothesis 2. This is consistent with the results showing that students with high grit tend to exercise consistently and maintain healthy lifestyles. Bae et al. [46] reported that the higher the students’ grit, the higher the scores for exercise and life satisfaction. Stamatis et al. [47] similarly found that grit was an important factor in predicting high- and moderate-intensity exercise. Rutberg et al. [48] argued that creating grit could be the ultimate goal for achieving sustainable student physical activity. Grit was also positively associated with physical activity and leisure time physical activity [49]. Individuals with higher levels of grit reported healthier eating and sleeping behaviors than individuals with lower levels of grit [50].
Gorin et al. [51] concluded that grit played an important role in healthy habits and had a positive effect on exercise persistence. In other words, grit or the consistent effort toward achieving a goal can have a positive effect not only on physical health but also on improving lifestyle habits. These results suggest that PE should include educational approaches to supporting healthy lifestyle habits beyond simple exercise skills.
However, we found that trust in PE teachers had no significant direct effect on voluntary health-promoting behaviors in adolescents, therefore rejecting Hypothesis 3. This result contrasts with previous findings, which indicate that the higher the level of trust in PE teachers, the higher the intention to participate in sports [52]. However, our results suggest that the trust relationship between teachers and students may indirectly affect health-promoting behaviors through students’ psychological factors, namely, grit. Thus, there may be limitations in improving students’ healthy behavior simply by increasing trust in PE teachers. Therefore, improving trust through teaching and learning strategies should be supplemented by developing student grit.
Ultimately, we found that grit mediated the relationship between trust in PE teachers and health-promoting behaviors, supporting Hypothesis 4. This is consistent with studies that point to a high positive correlation among trust in coaches, grit, and the continued exercise intention of college soccer players [53]. This also suggests that trust in PE teachers influences the development of healthy lifestyle habits by strengthening student grit, rather than by directly influencing healthy behavior. In other words, the greater the students’ trust in their PE teachers, the more they perform physical activities based on perseverance and patience; this, then, engenders health-promoting behaviors. As such, PE teachers play the role of psychological supporter; someone who develops student perseverance and patience rather than just offering technical instruction.
In sum, we found that trust in PE teachers was an important factor in strengthening students’ grit, with grit playing an important role in the development of voluntary health-promoting behaviors. As stated above, for this reason, PE teachers should build trusting relationships with their students and use various teaching and learning strategies to enhance their grit. Studies have shown that positive emotions and hope can enhance grit [54] and that encouraging intentional tasks can promote the development of grit [55]. Furthermore, continuous sports participation during adolescence has a positive effect on increasing grit in adulthood [56].
According to Nho and Chae [57], continuous participation in lifestyle intervention is effective in improving students’ health-promoting behaviors. Kamran et al. [58] argued that meaningful improvements in behavior and health promotion can be achieved through planned and targeted systematic student education. In the long term, student grit needs to improve in PE classes, and educational experiences need to be practically relevant to students’ present and future lives [59]. Teachers need to establish and promote positive teacher–student relationships and improve students’ learning outcomes by being listeners of mental health issues, leaders of academic learning, and supporters of creative thinking [18]. The study by Ria and Eliasa [60] confirmed that open communication and inclusive teaching methods contributed to improving learning motivation and academic achievement and reducing students’ problem behaviors. Ultimately, teacher education and training policies need to be developed to ensure high-quality teacher–student interactions [60].
Based on our analysis, we offer the following recommendations: PE teachers should develop close relationships with their students while exhibiting fairness towards all students; highlight the benefits of continuous sports participation and the importance of healthy lifestyle habits; and establish a foundation for regular exercise habits through their classes. Finally, they should focus on increasing student grit by creating long-term goals, achievable and challenging tasks, and successful student experiences.
Although our study contributed to the literature by confirming the importance of grit in the relationship between trust in PE teachers and adolescent health-promoting behaviors, it also had some limitations. First, since we limited the study participants to middle school students in one region of Korea (Sejong City), it may be difficult to generalize the findings to all Korean students. Second, we did not investigate the cultural context, such as whether collectivist norms in Korea influence trust or grit differently than they do in Western populations. Third, we used a self-reported questionnaire, which may induce bias in the results. Fourth, the fact that validity and reliability were not examined together in an integrated dimension, including all factors, may also be a limitation. Fifth, we only considered a limited number of health-promoting behaviors and excluded a discussion of unhealthy behaviors, such as smoking and drinking. Sixth, a sample size of 369 participants could be considered too limiting. Future research could consider other regions, which would expand the scope of the study population. It could also explore mechanisms for improving trust in PE teachers and grit, as well as PE programs for forming healthy lifestyle habits.

5. Conclusions

Our study identified three key results: trust in PE teachers has a positive effect on grit; grit has a positive effect on health-promoting behaviors; and, as trust in PE teachers does not have a significant direct effect on health-promoting behavior, grit has a significant mediating effect in the relationship between trust in PE teachers and health-promoting behaviors. These results underscore the role of grit as a key psychological factor affecting health-promoting behavior among adolescents in more than one way. Thus, it is important to strengthen student trust in PE teachers as well as establish a teaching and learning method that improves grit. The ability to improve grit could have positive, long-term implications for student health in the future.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.-H.S., W.-Y.S. and J.-H.P.; methodology, H.-H.S., W.-Y.S. and J.-H.P.; formal analysis, H.-H.S., W.-Y.S. and J.-H.P.; data curation, H.-H.S., W.-Y.S. and J.-H.P.; writing—original draft preparation, H.-H.S., W.-Y.S. and J.-H.P.; writing—review and editing, H.-H.S., W.-Y.S. and J.-H.P.; visualization, H.-H.S., W.-Y.S. and J.-H.P.; supervision, H.-H.S., W.-Y.S. and J.-H.P.; project administration, H.-H.S., W.-Y.S. and J.-H.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The student health examination was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Korea National University of Education (approval number KNUE-202505-SB-0204-01, approval date 8 May 2025) and conducted according to the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki.

Informed Consent Statement

All participants and their guardians were informed about the study’s purpose and voluntarily signed an informed consent form.

Data Availability Statement

The data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency. The 20th Korea Youth Risk Behavior Web-based Survey. Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency, 2024. Available online: https://www.kdca.go.kr/yhs/ (accessed on 31 May 2025).
  2. Lee, M.K.; Oh, J. Health-Related Quality of Life in Older Adults: Its Association with Health Literacy, Self-Efficacy, Social Support, and Health-Promoting Behavior. Healthcare 2020, 8, 407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Tabrizi, J.S.; Doshmangir, L.; Khoshmaram, N.; Shakibazadeh, E.; Abdolahi, H.M.; Khabiri, R. Key factors affecting health promoting behaviors among adolescents: A scoping review. BMC Health Serv. Res. 2024, 24, 58. [Google Scholar]
  4. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education; Board on Children, Youth, and Families; Committee on Applying Lessons of Optimal Adolescent Health to Improve Behavioral Outcomes for Youth. Promoting Positive Adolescent Health Behaviors and Outcomes: Thriving in the 21st Century; Kahn, N.F., Graham, R., Eds.; National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  5. Liu, Z.; Huang, L.; Tian, H.; Liu, H.; Luo, H.; Tao, Y.; Peng, L. The chain mediating role of family health and physical activity in the relationship between life satisfaction and health-promoting lifestyles among young adults in China. Front. Public Health 2024, 12, 1408988. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Tao, Y.; Wu, J.; Huang, L.; Zheng, K.; Liu, H.; Tian, H.; Peng, L. The relationship between health-promoting behaviors and negative emotions in college freshmen: A cross-lagged analysis. Front. Public Health 2024, 12, 1348416. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Laurier, C.; Pascuzzo, K.; Jubinville, V.; Lemieux, A. Physical activity and its benefits on adolescents’ mental health through self-esteem. Front. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2024, 3, 1503920. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Li, Z.; Li, J.; Kong, J.; Li, Z.; Wang, R.; Jiang, F. Adolescent mental health interventions: A narrative review of the positive effects of physical activity and implementation strategies. Front. Psychol. 2024, 15, 1433698. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Brinsley, J.; Schmidt, M.; Curtis, R.; Simpson, C.E.; Edwards, J.; Eglitis, E.E.; Gosse, G.; Broad, M.; Jardine, B.; Taddeo, E.; et al. Effectiveness of peer-led health behaviour interventions on adolescent’s mental health and wellbeing: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci. Rep. 2025, 15, 16480. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. McHale, F.; Ng, K.; Taylor, S.; Bengoechea, E.; Norton, C.; O’Shea, D.; Woods, C. A Systematic Literature Review of Peer-led Strategies for Promoting Physical Activity Levels of Adolescents. Health Educ. Behav. 2022, 49, 41–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Stellefson, M.; Paige, S.R.; Chaney, B.H.; Chaney, J.D. Evolving Role of Social Media in Health Promotion: Updated Responsibilities for Health Education Specialists. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 1153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Liu, Y.; Yan, J.; Li, J. The relationship between physical education teachers’ competence support and middle school students’ participation in sports: A chain mediation model of perceived competence and exercise persistence. PLoS ONE 2025, 20, e0314338. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Viksi, A.; Tilga, H. Perceived Physical Education Teachers’ Controlling Behaviour and Students’ Physical Activity during Leisure Time—The Dark Side of the Trans-Contextual Model of Motivation. Behav. Sci. 2022, 12, 342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Dong, Y.; Wang, H.; Luan, F.; Li, Z.; Cheng, L. How children feel matters: Teacher–student relationship as an indirect role between interpersonal trust and social adjustment. Front. Psychol. 2021, 11, 581235. [Google Scholar]
  15. Sun, J.; Zhang, R.; Forsyth, P.B. The Effects of Teacher Trust on Student Learning and the Malleability of Teacher Trust to School Leadership: A 35-Year Meta-Analysis. Educ. Adm. Q. 2023, 59, 744–810. [Google Scholar]
  16. Sakineh, J.; Ali, A. Predicting students’ academic achievement based on the classroom climate, mediating role of teacher-student interaction and academic motivation. Integr. Educ. 2020, 24, 62–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Şirin, H.D.; Erdoğan, A.; Şirin, E.F.; Işık, Ç. The Effect of Students’ Trust in Instructors on Students’ Class Participation and School Engagement: Example of Faculty of Sports Sciences. Turk. J. Sport Exerc. 2022, 24, 285–297. [Google Scholar]
  18. Dai, P. The Influence of Teacher-Student Relationship on Students’ Learning. Lect. Notes Educ. Psychol. Public Media 2024, 40, 241–247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Kim, S.H. The Moderating Effect of Sports Confidence in the Relationship between Physical Education Teacher Trust and Exercise Adherence. J. Educ. Dev. 2024, 44, 23–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Duckworth, A.L.; Quinn, P.D.; Tsukayama, E. Revisiting the factor structure of grit: A commentary on duckworth and quinn (2009). J. Personal. Assess. 2021, 103, 573–575. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Yaure, R.G.; Murowchick, E.; Schwab, J.E.; Jacobson-McConnell, L. How grit and resilience predict successful academic performance. J. Access Retent. Incl. High. Educ. 2020, 3, 6. [Google Scholar]
  22. Allen, R.E.; Kannangara, C.; Carson, J. True grit: How important is the concept of grit for education? a narrative literature review. Int. J. Educ. Psychol. 2021, 10, 73–87. [Google Scholar]
  23. Rafiee, S.; Dana, A.; Fallah, Z. Effect of Grit on Exercise Self-Efficacy and Participatory Performance in Elite Athletes. Sport Psychol. Stud. 2022, 11, 1–22. [Google Scholar]
  24. Lee, D.J.; Hwang, J.H. Structural relationship among Grit, Exercise Passion, Exercise Satisfaction and Exercise Adherence of Life Sports Participants. Korean Soc. Sports Sci. 2023, 32, 135–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Gray, H.M.; Moran, R.N.; Elder, E.; Wilkerson, A.; Chaney, E.; Gilmore-Childress, G.; Wallace, J. Grit, athlete burnout, and well-being in female collegiate student-athletes. J. Athl. Train. 2023, 58, 796–802. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  26. De La Cruz, M.; Zarate, A.; Zamarripa, J.; Castillo, I.; Borbon, A.; Duarte, H.; Valenzuela, K. Grit, Self-Efficacy, Motivation and the Readiness to Change Index Toward Exercise in the Adult Population. Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 732325. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Kurita, N.; Maeshibu, T.; Aita, T.; Wakita, T.; Kikuchi, H. The grit personality trait, eating behavior, and obesity among Japanese adults. medRxiv 2024, 5766. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Liu, M.; Dong, D.; Xiao, J.; Lai, C.; Zhuang, A.; Wang, Y. Grit Perseverance, Not Passion, Moderates the Association Between Behavioral Inhibition/Approach System and Internet Addiction in Adolescents. Psychol. Res. Behav. Manag. 2022, 15, 3531–3540. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Martin, J.; Toczko, M.; Locke, E.; McCarthy, R.; Milani, I.; Barrios, N.; Koutoubi, S.; Ambegaonkar, J.; Dhokai, N.; Boolani, A. Influence of Grit on Physical Activity, Sitting Time and Dietary Behaviors: A Multi-Study Analysis. Sustainability 2023, 15, 211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Hein, V.; Kalajas-Tilga, H.; Koka, A.; Raudsepp, L.; Tilga, H. How Grit is Related to Objectively Measured Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity in School Student. Montenegrin J. Sports Sci. Med. 2019, 8, 47–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Dai, L.; Su, B.; Liu, Q. Influence of grit on adolescents’ exercise adherence: The mediating role of exercise self-efficacy and the moderating role of self-control. Acta Psychol. 2025, 255, 104952. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Kline, R.B. Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling, 5th ed.; Guilford publications: New York, NY, USA, 2023. [Google Scholar]
  33. Verma, J.P.; Verma, P. Understanding Structural Equation Modeling: A Manual for Researchers; Springer Nature: Cham, Switzerland, 2023. [Google Scholar]
  34. Ullman, J.B.; Bentler, P.M. Structural equation modeling. In Handbook of Psychology: Research Methods in Psychology, 2nd ed.; Schinka, J.A., Velicer, W.F., Weiner, I.B., Eds.; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2013; pp. 661–690. [Google Scholar]
  35. Park, K.S.; Park, C.H. Development and validation of physical education teacher-trust scale for middle school students. Korean J. Sport Pedagog. 2009, 16, 41–54. [Google Scholar]
  36. Kim, E.J.; Cho, S.H.; Choo, N.Y. The Effect of Emotional Leadership of Physical Education Teachers on Trust and Class Flow in Middle School. Korean J. Phys. Educ. 2017, 56, 287–299. [Google Scholar]
  37. Ha, H.S.; Lim, H.J.; Hwang, M.H. The Role of Grit, Goal Perception, Conscientiousness and Resilience in Academic Adjustment. Korea J. Couns. 2017, 18, 371–388. [Google Scholar]
  38. Duckworth, A.L.; Peterson, C.; Matthews, M.D.; Kelly, D.R. Grit: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 2007, 92, 1087–1101. [Google Scholar]
  39. Walker, S.N.; Sechrist, K.R.; Pender, N.J. The health-promoting lifestyle profile: Development and psychometric characteristics. Nurs. Res. 1987, 36, 76–81. [Google Scholar]
  40. Kang, H.N.A.R.; Hong, M. The Relationship between Grit, Subjective Health Status, Class Satisfaction, and Health-Promoting Behaviors in College Students Participating in a Recreational Badminton Class. J. Korean Assoc. Phys. Educ. Sport Girls Women 2023, 37, 1–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Seo, J.Y. The Structural Relationship between Health Knowledge, Health Lifestyle Habits, Health Promotion Behaviors among College Students Participating in Sports for all. J. Coach. Dev. 2024, 26, 60–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Platz, M. Trust between teacher and student in academic education at school. J. Philos. Educ. 2021, 55, 688–697. [Google Scholar]
  43. Derakhshan, A.; Solhi, M.; Azari Noughabi, M. An Investigation into the Association between Student-Perceived Affective Teacher Variables and Students’ L2-Grit. J. Multiling. Multicult. Dev. 2023, 46, 798–814. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Cho, H.S. The Effect of Physical Education Teachers’ Attitude toward Students on the Students’ Grit and Sense of Challenge in Task Performance. Korean Soc. Sports Sci. 2022, 31, 461–474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Yoo, J.; Park, D. The role of teacher–student relationships in grit during early adolescence: A three-year longitudinal study. Personal. Individ. Differ. 2025, 236, 113035. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Bae, M.H.; Zhang, X.; Lee, J.S. Exercise, grit, and life satisfaction among Korean adolescents: A latent growth modeling analysis. BMC Public Health 2024, 24, 1392. [Google Scholar]
  47. Stamatis, A.; Adams, J.; Martin, J.; Smith, M.L.; Milani, I.; Caswell, S.V.; Cortes, N.; Boolani, A. Physical Activity, Sitting Time, and Feelings of Energy and Fatigue During the Early Stages of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Does Grit Make a Difference? Health Behav. Res. 2022, 5, 16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Rutberg, S.; Nyberg, L.; Castelli, D.; Lindqvist, A.-K. Grit as Perseverance in Physical Activity Participation. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 807. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Daniels, B.T.; Human, A.E.; Gallagher, K.M.; Howie, E.K. Relationships between grit, physical activity, and academic success in university students: Domains of physical activity matter. J. Am. Coll. Health 2023, 71, 1897–1905. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Martin, J.; Estep, A.; Tozcko, M.; Hartzel, B.; Boolani, A. Relationships between grit and lifestyle factors in undergraduate college students during the COVID-19 pandemic. J. Am. Coll. Health 2024, 72, 614–622. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Gorin, A.A.; Leahey, T.M.; Cornelius, T.; Bourgea, K.; Powers, T.A. Self-control and grit: Associations with weight management and healthy habits. J. Behav. Med. 2024, 47, 160–167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Lai, M.Y.; Fotiadis, A.K.; Abu-ElSamen, A.; Beede, P. Analysing the effect of membership and perceived trust on sport events electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) intention. Tour. Recreat. Res. 2022, 47, 91–104. [Google Scholar]
  53. Jeon, H.S.; Kim, O.J.; Ahn, J.H. The relationship between coach’s trustworthiness, trust in coach, grit and exercise adherence intention. Korean Soc. Study Phys. Educ. 2022, 27, 185–198. [Google Scholar]
  54. Munoz, R.T. Grit and hope: A structural model of protective factors that contribute to subjective well-being for survivors of adverse childhood experiences. J. Fam. Trauma Child Custody Child Dev. 2023, 20, 177–196. [Google Scholar]
  55. Whitfield, K.M.; Wilby, K.J. Developing Grit, Motivation, and Resilience: To Give Up on Giving In. Pharmacy 2021, 9, 109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Nothnagle, E.A.; Knoester, C. Sport participation and the development of grit. Leis. Sci. 2025, 47, 225–242. [Google Scholar]
  57. Nho, J.-H.; Chae, S.-W. Effects of a Lifestyle Intervention on Health-Promoting Behavior, Psychological Distress and Reproductive Health of Overweight and Obese Female College Students. Healthcare 2021, 9, 309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  58. Kamran, A.; Aliakbari, P.; Nasimi Doost Azgomi, R.; Naeim, M. Action status and willingness to change health-promoting behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic among elementary school children: A study based on Prochaska’s stages of behavior change theory (TTM). BMC Public Health 2023, 23, 248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Trigueros, R.; García-Mas, A. Psychological well-being, resilience, self-determination and grit: The ‘novelty’ role in physical education classes. Br. J. Educ. Psychol. 2025, 95, 643–662. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Ria, G.R.; Eliasa, E.I. Fostering Positive Student-Teacher Relationships: A Literature Study On Positive Relationships and Their Impact on Academic and Social Outcomes. Innovative: J. Soc. Sci. Res. 2024, 4, 6990–7005. [Google Scholar]
Figure 1. Research model.
Figure 1. Research model.
Healthcare 13 01650 g001
Figure 2. Standardized estimates in the structural equation model (*** p < 0.001).
Figure 2. Standardized estimates in the structural equation model (*** p < 0.001).
Healthcare 13 01650 g002
Table 1. Participant characteristics (n = 369).
Table 1. Participant characteristics (n = 369).
CharacteristicCategoriesFrequency (n)Percentage (%)
SexMale18650.41
Female18349.59
Total369100.00
Grade7th13636.86
8th10127.37
9th13235.77
Total369100.00
Exercise frequency 1 time/week6216.80
2 times/week5013.55
3 times/week11831.97
4 times/week4211.38
5 times/week6317.07
6 times/week215.69
7 times/week133.52
Total369100.00
Table 2. Descriptive statistics of each variable.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics of each variable.
VariablesFactorAverageStandard DeviationSkewnessKurtosis
Trust in physical education teachersCloseness4.0830.813−0.8800.721
Fairness3.8660.875−0.6960.400
Teaching method3.9630.834−0.7170.763
Physical ability4.1780.773−1.1651.962
GritEffort perseverance 3.8140.840−0.293−0.251
Interest consistency 3.5380.7250.294−0.182
Health-promoting behaviorsSelf-actualization3.8650.717−0.3220.075
Health management3.2590.816−0.0200.192
Stress management3.6730.800−0.2070.098
Table 3. Confirmatory factor analysis results.
Table 3. Confirmatory factor analysis results.
VariablesSub-VariablesBβStandard ErrorCritical RatioCronbach’s
α
Model Fit
Trust in physical education
teachers
Closeness 10.9730.8530.04621.188 ***0.907χ2 = 145.986
df = 59
GFI = 0.945
RMR = 0.024
RMSEA = 0.063
IFI = 0.977
TLI = 0.969
CFI = 0.976
Closeness 21.2000.8610.05621.540 ***
Closeness 30.8900.8150.04519.582 ***
Closeness 41.0000.861--
Fairness 10.7870.7590.04915.979 ***0.851
Fairness 21.0120.8560.05418.661 ***
Fairness 31.0000.819--
Teaching method 11.0350.8510.05020.878 ***0.885
Teaching method 21.0780.8400.05320.417 ***
Teaching method 31.0000.860--
Physical ability 11.1020.8620.06616.729 ***0.850
Physical ability 21.0210.8120.06515.748 ***
Physical ability 31.0000.755--
GritEffort perseverance 10.9410.8410.05517.014 ***0.916χ2 = 304.53
df = 53
GFI = 0.858
RMR = 0.062
RMSEA = 0.114
IFI = 0.915
TLI = 0.894
CFI = 0.915
Effort perseverance 20.9490.8350.05616.870 ***
Effort perseverance 31.0080.8410.05917.000 ***
Effort perseverance 41.0100.8230.06116.590 ***
Effort perseverance 50.9190.8340.05516.854 ***
Effort perseverance 60.9060.7350.06214.556 ***
Effort perseverance 70.8690.7200.06114.237 ***
Effort perseverance 81.0000.754--
Interest consistency 11.1750.7810.08613.682 ***0.783
Interest consistency 21.2410.8200.08714.217 ***
Interest consistency 31.2280.7930.08913.849 ***
Interest consistency 41.0000.722--
Health-promoting behaviorsSelf-actualization 10.7750.6680.06312.384 ***0.908χ2 = 503.692
df = 183
GFI = 0.882
RMR = 0.066
RMSEA = 0.069
IFI = 0.913
TLI = 0.899
CFI = 0.912
Self-actualization 20.7230.6700.05812.430 ***
Self-actualization 30.6950.5520.06810.199 ***
Self-actualization 40.7970.6540.06612.120 ***
Self-actualization 50.9500.7790.06514.508 ***
Self-actualization 60.9740.7520.07013.992 ***
Self-actualization 71.0280.7440.06416.035 ***
Self-actualization 81.0000.725--
Self-actualization 90.8670.6770.06912.568 ***
Self-actualization 101.0430.7750.07214.428 ***
Health management 11.4720.6440.2156.833 ***0.773
Health management 21.4980.6560.2186.876 ***
Health management 31.7310.7830.2397.246 ***
Health management 41.0000.403--
Health management 51.5320.7280.2167.107 ***
Health management 61.1240.4840.1866.047 ***
Stress management 10.9420.7460.06614.190 ***0.811
Stress management 20.7140.6980.05413.194 ***
Stress management 30.8610.6770.06712.767 ***
Stress management 40.7340.5520.07210.233 ***
Stress management 51.0000.777--
Notes: *** p < 0.001; assessed using confirmatory factor analysis and Cronbach’s α. GFI, goodness-of-fit-index; RMR, root mean square residual; RMSEA, root mean square error of approximation; IFI, incremental fit index; TLI, Tucker–Lewis index; CFI, comparative fit index.
Table 4. Correlation analysis results.
Table 4. Correlation analysis results.
123456789
11.000
20.692 ***1.000
30.760 ***0.775 ***1.000
40.752 ***0.655 ***0.735 ***1.000
50.367 ***0.439 ***0.406 ***0.248 ***1.000
60.368 ***0.423 ***0.435 ***0.249 ***0.711 ***1.000
70.360 ***0.442 ***0.385 ***0.253 ***0.666 ***0.539 ***1.000
80.216 ***0.332 ***0.271 ***0.106 *0.516 ***0.513 ***0.620 ***1.000
90.334 ***0.431 ***0.393 ***0.278 ***0.530 ***0.455 ***0.714 ***0.581 ***1.000
Notes: * p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001; assessed using Pearson correlation analysis. 1, closeness; 2, fairness; 3, teaching method; 4, physical ability; 5, effort perseverance; 6, interest consistency; 7, self-actualization; 8, health management; 9, stress management.
Table 5. Goodness-of-fit indices of the research model.
Table 5. Goodness-of-fit indices of the research model.
Normed χ2GFIRMRRMSEAIFITLICFI
Goodness-of-fit index4.138
2 = 99.319, df = 24)
0.9420.0330.0920.9650.9470.965
Criteria of model fit<5.000≥0.900≤0.050≤0.100≥0.900≥0.900≥0.900
GFI, goodness-of-fit-index; RMR, root mean square residual; RMSEA, root mean square error of approximation; IFI, incremental fit index; TLI, Tucker–Lewis index; CFI, comparative fit index.
Table 6. Parameter estimates of the research model.
Table 6. Parameter estimates of the research model.
VariablesFactorBβStandard ErrorCritical Ratio
Trust in physical education teachersCloseness1.1010.8530.05719.175 ***
Fairness1.1650.8380.06218.689 ***
Teaching method1.2020.9070.05820.812 ***
Physical ability1.0000.815--
GritEffort perseverance1.0000.901--
Interest consistency0.7560.7890.04716.037 ***
Health-promoting behaviorsSelf-actualization1.0000.897--
Health management0.8980.7070.05915.156 ***
Stress management0.9840.7910.05617.605 ***
Notes: *** p < 0.001; assessed using structural equation modeling.
Table 7. Estimate of the direct paths.
Table 7. Estimate of the direct paths.
PathBβStandard ErrorCritical RatioHypothesis
H1Trust in physical education teachersGrit0.6070.5050.0688.966 ***Supported
H2GritHealth-promoting behaviors0.6320.7430.05411.701 ***Supported
H3Trust in physical education teachersHealth-promoting behaviors0.1050.1030.0541.961Rejected
*** p < 0.001; assessed using structural equation modeling.
Table 8. Estimate of the indirect path.
Table 8. Estimate of the indirect path.
Indirect PathEstimateStandard Error95% Confidence IntervalHypothesis
LowerUpper
H4Physical education
teacher trust
GritHealth-promoting behaviors0.384 **0.0520.2790.489Supported
** p < 0.01; assessed using structural equation modeling.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Song, H.-H.; So, W.-Y.; Park, J.-H. The Mediating Effect of Grit in the Relationship Between Middle School Students’ Trust in Their Physical Education Teachers and Health-Promoting Behaviors: Evidence from Korea. Healthcare 2025, 13, 1650. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13141650

AMA Style

Song H-H, So W-Y, Park J-H. The Mediating Effect of Grit in the Relationship Between Middle School Students’ Trust in Their Physical Education Teachers and Health-Promoting Behaviors: Evidence from Korea. Healthcare. 2025; 13(14):1650. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13141650

Chicago/Turabian Style

Song, Ho-Hyun, Wi-Young So, and Ji-Heum Park. 2025. "The Mediating Effect of Grit in the Relationship Between Middle School Students’ Trust in Their Physical Education Teachers and Health-Promoting Behaviors: Evidence from Korea" Healthcare 13, no. 14: 1650. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13141650

APA Style

Song, H.-H., So, W.-Y., & Park, J.-H. (2025). The Mediating Effect of Grit in the Relationship Between Middle School Students’ Trust in Their Physical Education Teachers and Health-Promoting Behaviors: Evidence from Korea. Healthcare, 13(14), 1650. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13141650

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop